The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. The UN was founded in 1945 to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between nations and to provide a platform for dialogue.
There are now 192 member states, including almost every recognized independent state. From its headquarters on international territory within New York City, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization is divided into administrative bodies, primarily:
The General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly);
The Security Council (decides certain resolutions for peace and security);
The Economic and Social Council (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development);
The Secretariat (provides studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN);
The International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ).
Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN System agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea.
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
Sunday, March 30, 2008
Friday, March 28, 2008
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Swedish: Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne), is an award for outstanding contributions in the field of economics and is generally considered one of the most prestigious awards in that field It is commonly referred to as the "Nobel Prize in Economicsand it is identified with the Nobel Prizes, although it is not one of the five Nobel Prizes (in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace) which were established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895.[ The Prize in Economics, as it is frequently referred to by the Nobel Foundation, is a prize established in memory of Alfred Nobel in 1968 on the 300th anniversary of Sveriges Riksbank (the central bank of Sweden, sometimes called the Bank of Sweden or the Swedish National Bank It was first awarded in 1969 to the Dutch and Norwegian economists Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch, "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes Like the Nobel Laureates in Chemistry and Physics, Laureates in Economics are selected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Famous economists
Early economists were found in the Ancient Greek world, with Aristotle (382-322 BC) expounding in his work Topics on the topic of human production and further examining the topic in Politics.[11] Xenophon (431-355) also wrote extensively on the Athenian economy in his work Economics. [12] According to some historians, "the pioneer economist of the world" was Chanakya (c. 350-283 BC) an adviser and prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta from 340-293 BC.[13] In the 1700s, one of the first economic writers was Richard Cantillon (1680-1734), who wrote the treatise Essai Sur la Nature du Commerce en Général. Early founders of economic concepts included the Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. David Hume 1711-1776) and the so-called "classical economists": English demographer and political economist Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), political economist David Ricardo (1772–1823), and the Scottish moral philosopher and political economist Adam Smith (1723-1790). Other early developers of economic concepts include the British philosopher, political economist John Stuart Mill (1806–1873); French economist and free trade advocate Jean-Baptiste Say (1767–1832); Prussian philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary Karl Marx (1818–1883); French classical liberal theorist and political economist, Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850); and English economist and logician William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882).
Founders of important economic concepts who were alive during the 20th century include the Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk (1851–1914); the founder of the Austrian School of economics, Carl Menger (1840–1921); British economist, developer of Keynesian economics, and influential founders of modern theoretical macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946); American economist, health campaigner, and eugenicist Irving Fisher (1867-1947); German economist and proponent of the social market economy, Wilhelm Röpke (1899-1966); American economists, Nobel Prize Laureate and proponent of the Tobit model, James Tobin (1918-2002); Austrian-British member of the Austrian School of economics Friedrich Hayek (1899-1992); and American economist, public intellectual, and laissez-faire capitalism advocate Milton Friedman (1912–2006).
Current well-known American economists include Paul Krugman, a public intellectual, advocate of modern liberal policies, known for his descriptions of rising inequality; Jeffrey Sachs, former United Nations economic adviser to the Secretary-General and author of The End of Poverty; and Alan Greenspan, the former chairman of the Federal Reserve.
Founders of important economic concepts who were alive during the 20th century include the Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk (1851–1914); the founder of the Austrian School of economics, Carl Menger (1840–1921); British economist, developer of Keynesian economics, and influential founders of modern theoretical macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946); American economist, health campaigner, and eugenicist Irving Fisher (1867-1947); German economist and proponent of the social market economy, Wilhelm Röpke (1899-1966); American economists, Nobel Prize Laureate and proponent of the Tobit model, James Tobin (1918-2002); Austrian-British member of the Austrian School of economics Friedrich Hayek (1899-1992); and American economist, public intellectual, and laissez-faire capitalism advocate Milton Friedman (1912–2006).
Current well-known American economists include Paul Krugman, a public intellectual, advocate of modern liberal policies, known for his descriptions of rising inequality; Jeffrey Sachs, former United Nations economic adviser to the Secretary-General and author of The End of Poverty; and Alan Greenspan, the former chairman of the Federal Reserve.
Economist
An economist is an expert in the social science of economics.[1] The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this field there are many sub-fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets, macroeconomic analysis, microeconomic analysis or financial analysis, involving analytical methods and tools such as econometrics, statistics, economics computational models, financial economics, financial mathematics and mathematical economics.
[edit] In academia
The professionalization of economics, reflected in academia, has been described as "the main change in economics since around 1900."[2] Most major universities have an economics faculty, school or department, where academic degrees are awarded in economics. However, many prominent economists come from a background in mathematics, engineering, business, law, sociology, or history.
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, established by Sveriges Riksbank in 1968, is a prize awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. The prize winners are announced in October every year. They receive their awards (a prize amount, a gold medal and a diploma) on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.[3]
Professions
Economists work in many fields including academia, government and in the private sector, where they may also "...study data and statistics in order to spot trends in economic activity, economic confidence levels, and consumer attitudes. They assess this information using advanced methods in statistical analysis, mathematics, computer programming [and] they make recommendations about ways to improve the efficiency of a system or take advantage of trends as they begin."[4]
It is more difficult to define the professional category of "economists" than to define regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine. While a lawyer, for example, may be generally defined as a person possessing a law degree and state license to practice law, there is not a legally-required educational requirement or license for economists. In some job settings, the possession of a Bachelor's or Master's degree in economics is considered the minimum credential for being an economist. However, in some parts of the US government, a person can be considered an economist as long as they have four or more university courses in economics. As well, a person can gain the skills required to become a professional economist in other related disciplines, such as statistics or some types of applied mathematics, such as mathematical finance or game theory.
A professional working inside of one of many fields of economics or having an academic degree in this subject is widely considered to be an economist, and any person within any of these fields can claim to be one[citation needed]. Economists are also employed in banking, finance, accountancy, commerce, marketing, business administration, lobbying and non- or not-for profit organizations.
Politicians often consult economists before enacting policy, and many statesmen have academic degrees in economics (see List of politicians with economics training).
By country
Economics graduates are employable in varying degrees, depending on the regional economic scenario and labour market conditions at the time for a given country. Apart from the specific understanding of the subject, employers value the skills of numeracy and analysis, the ability to communicate and the capacity to grasp broad issues which the graduates acquire at the university or college. Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management. A number of economics graduates from around the world have been successful in obtaining employment in a variety of major national and international firms in the financial and commercial sectors, and in manufacturing, retailing and IT, as well as in the public sector – for example, in the health and education sectors, or in government and politics. Small numbers go on to undertake postgraduate studies, either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas.
United States
Economist salaries by educational attainment.[5]
According to the United States Department of Labor there were 13,000 economists in the US with a median salary of roughly $72,780 with the top ten percent earning more than US$ 129,170 annually.[6] About 400 colleges and universities grant about 900 new Ph.D.s in economics each year. The type of academic degree, Bachelors, Masters or Doctorate degree had significant influence on an individuals job outlook and salary. While the overall expected job growth for economists remains below nation average, the demand for those with a Doctorate, especially those employed in the corporate sector, is expected to increase at a considerably faster pace.[7] Incomes were highest for those in the private sector, followed by the federal government with academia and high schools paying the lowest incomes. Median salaries ranged from $45,000 for those with a Bachelor to $85,000 for those with a Ph.D. in economics. A recent and continuous study by PayScale.com showed Economic consultants with a Ph.D. had the overall highest median income for any group making $116,250, the median salaries for an assistant professor was $63,500, for an associate professor it lay at $67,000 and $85,000 for a full professor. The overall median income for doctorates in academia was $75,000 compared to $125,000 in consulting and $87,000 in banking.[5]
Policy advising and analyzing of economic current trends are among the main responsibilities of economists in the United States. A recent study of U.S. economists by Daniel B. Klein and Charlotta Stern found that the responses show that most economists are supporters of safety regulations, gun control, redistribution, public schooling, and anti-discrimination laws. They are evenly mixed on personal choice issues, military action, and the minimum wage. Most economists oppose tighter immigration controls, government ownership of enterprise and tariffs.[8] A study in the Southern Economic Journal found that "71 percent of American economists believe the distribution of income in the US should be more equal, and 81 percent feel that the redistribution of income is a legitimate role for government."[9] In terms of political orientation 63% identified as progressive and less than 20% as conservative/libertarian[10] with registered Democrats outnumbering registered Republicans 2.8:1.[8]
United Kingdom
The largest single professional grouping of economists in the UK are the more than 1000 members of the Government Economic Service, who work in 30 government departments and agencies.
Analysis of destination surveys for economics graduates from a number of selected top schools of economics in the United Kingdom (ranging from Newcastle University to the London School of Economics), shows nearly 80 per cent in employment six months after graduation – with a wide range of roles and employers, including regional, national and international organisations, across many sectors. This figure compares very favourably with the national picture, with 64 per cent of economics graduates in employment
[edit] In academia
The professionalization of economics, reflected in academia, has been described as "the main change in economics since around 1900."[2] Most major universities have an economics faculty, school or department, where academic degrees are awarded in economics. However, many prominent economists come from a background in mathematics, engineering, business, law, sociology, or history.
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, established by Sveriges Riksbank in 1968, is a prize awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. The prize winners are announced in October every year. They receive their awards (a prize amount, a gold medal and a diploma) on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.[3]
Professions
Economists work in many fields including academia, government and in the private sector, where they may also "...study data and statistics in order to spot trends in economic activity, economic confidence levels, and consumer attitudes. They assess this information using advanced methods in statistical analysis, mathematics, computer programming [and] they make recommendations about ways to improve the efficiency of a system or take advantage of trends as they begin."[4]
It is more difficult to define the professional category of "economists" than to define regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine. While a lawyer, for example, may be generally defined as a person possessing a law degree and state license to practice law, there is not a legally-required educational requirement or license for economists. In some job settings, the possession of a Bachelor's or Master's degree in economics is considered the minimum credential for being an economist. However, in some parts of the US government, a person can be considered an economist as long as they have four or more university courses in economics. As well, a person can gain the skills required to become a professional economist in other related disciplines, such as statistics or some types of applied mathematics, such as mathematical finance or game theory.
A professional working inside of one of many fields of economics or having an academic degree in this subject is widely considered to be an economist, and any person within any of these fields can claim to be one[citation needed]. Economists are also employed in banking, finance, accountancy, commerce, marketing, business administration, lobbying and non- or not-for profit organizations.
Politicians often consult economists before enacting policy, and many statesmen have academic degrees in economics (see List of politicians with economics training).
By country
Economics graduates are employable in varying degrees, depending on the regional economic scenario and labour market conditions at the time for a given country. Apart from the specific understanding of the subject, employers value the skills of numeracy and analysis, the ability to communicate and the capacity to grasp broad issues which the graduates acquire at the university or college. Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management. A number of economics graduates from around the world have been successful in obtaining employment in a variety of major national and international firms in the financial and commercial sectors, and in manufacturing, retailing and IT, as well as in the public sector – for example, in the health and education sectors, or in government and politics. Small numbers go on to undertake postgraduate studies, either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas.
United States
Economist salaries by educational attainment.[5]
According to the United States Department of Labor there were 13,000 economists in the US with a median salary of roughly $72,780 with the top ten percent earning more than US$ 129,170 annually.[6] About 400 colleges and universities grant about 900 new Ph.D.s in economics each year. The type of academic degree, Bachelors, Masters or Doctorate degree had significant influence on an individuals job outlook and salary. While the overall expected job growth for economists remains below nation average, the demand for those with a Doctorate, especially those employed in the corporate sector, is expected to increase at a considerably faster pace.[7] Incomes were highest for those in the private sector, followed by the federal government with academia and high schools paying the lowest incomes. Median salaries ranged from $45,000 for those with a Bachelor to $85,000 for those with a Ph.D. in economics. A recent and continuous study by PayScale.com showed Economic consultants with a Ph.D. had the overall highest median income for any group making $116,250, the median salaries for an assistant professor was $63,500, for an associate professor it lay at $67,000 and $85,000 for a full professor. The overall median income for doctorates in academia was $75,000 compared to $125,000 in consulting and $87,000 in banking.[5]
Policy advising and analyzing of economic current trends are among the main responsibilities of economists in the United States. A recent study of U.S. economists by Daniel B. Klein and Charlotta Stern found that the responses show that most economists are supporters of safety regulations, gun control, redistribution, public schooling, and anti-discrimination laws. They are evenly mixed on personal choice issues, military action, and the minimum wage. Most economists oppose tighter immigration controls, government ownership of enterprise and tariffs.[8] A study in the Southern Economic Journal found that "71 percent of American economists believe the distribution of income in the US should be more equal, and 81 percent feel that the redistribution of income is a legitimate role for government."[9] In terms of political orientation 63% identified as progressive and less than 20% as conservative/libertarian[10] with registered Democrats outnumbering registered Republicans 2.8:1.[8]
United Kingdom
The largest single professional grouping of economists in the UK are the more than 1000 members of the Government Economic Service, who work in 30 government departments and agencies.
Analysis of destination surveys for economics graduates from a number of selected top schools of economics in the United Kingdom (ranging from Newcastle University to the London School of Economics), shows nearly 80 per cent in employment six months after graduation – with a wide range of roles and employers, including regional, national and international organisations, across many sectors. This figure compares very favourably with the national picture, with 64 per cent of economics graduates in employment
Tuesday, March 25, 2008
italys way of life
The life in northern Italy is not as big as the life in southern Italy. The north is a lot richer. The north also is more urbanized and has more industries than the south. The service industries are manufacturing and construction. The percentage of the people who worked in agriculture is higher in the south than in the north. In most parts of Italy people live in the city and the towns. Italians are really attached to their towns, homes, neighborhoods, and their families
City Life
A lot more than two-thirds of Italy’s people live around the Urban Areas. Italians live in concrete apartment buildings. A few of the wealthy people live in single-family homes. The oldest parts of an Italian cities consist a lot of low buildings that have apartments around the central court yard. The newer sections of the city often have big apartment buildings. Most of the home owners by rather apartments than rent their apartments. The poor neighborhoods are usually located on the outer part of the city.
Most unmarried children live with their parents. Parents a lot of the time help an adult son or daughter near an apartment near their own. A lot of young women work outside of their house. Grandparents often help watch the children of working moms. Most of the urban areas have public child-care centers.
Cities grew because of the use of private cars which led to serious urban pollution. In big cities, the air pollution problems pose a health hazard and has damaged priceless architecture. Bologna and a lot of other cities have eased this problem by banning private cars from the city centers.
Rural Life
In the past, a lot of rural communities in Italy consisted of a big agreement surrounded by a big area of agricultural land. Farmers most of the time live in a town and travel to fields each day. This pattern was especially common in southern Italy. In the north, a lot of farmers live on their land.
Most of the rural townspeople live in apartment buildings. Only wealthy people had their own buildings, which was usually in the middle of the community. Today, more and more single-family homes are being built in rural areas, sometimes outside of the old communities.
Food and Drinks
The Italians take a lot of pride in their cooking. They usually eat their main meal at midday. They have big meals, such as a pasta meal, which
is followed by the main meal of either meat or fish. Sometimes they eat a meal of antipasto, which are appetizers. The antipasto has a lot of different cold meats and some vegetables, such as prosciutto (a type of ham,) salami, olives, and artichoke hearts.
Italian food differs a lot by the regions. In the north, flat, ribbon-shaped pastas get served with cream sauces are the most popular. In the south, macaroni is served with tomato-based sauces. Soups of all kinds usually take the spot of pasta as a first meal. Another popular meal is risotto, a rice plate with vegetables. The most popular meats are veal and pork. Cheeses are also important. They are either eaten alone or used in other meals. Pizza is a popular snack and is also eaten as a light meal. Fresh fruit is a popular desert. Traditionally, wine is served with every meal except breakfast.
Recreation
Italians like a wide amount of sports. Soccer is the most popular sport in Italy. Every major city has a professional soccer team. But soccer is not just a big sport- on the weekends. Italy’s parks are filled with kids and adults playing the game of soccer. Basketball is also very popular; some cities have more than one professional basketball team. Other popular sports are fishing, cycling, roller-skating, and baseball.
Family recreational activities are taking a traditional Sunday passeggiata (family stroll), driving to the seashore or the mountains, and watching TV. Italians insist going to the movies, but growing popularity of watching TV has led to a decline in the movie attendance.
Religion
About 95 percent of Italy’s people are Roman Catholics. Most baptisms, weddings, and funerals are held in churches, but only about 30 percent of all Italians attend church regularly. A lot of others occasionally attend church. An agreement called the Latheran Pact governs the relationship between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church. For instance, the part is about priests and other members of religious orders from military service and gives tax exemptions to Catholic organizations.
The Roman Catholic Church has had a strong influence on laws in the past, but that influence has weakened. For example, until 1970, the church was able to block attempts to legalize divorce in Italy. In 1978, voters didn’t allow the church position and voted to allow abortions.
Vatican City, the spiritual and governmental center of the Roman Catholic Church, lies entirely within the city of Rome. There are a lot of small religious people in Italy. These groups are Protestane, Muslim, and Jewish.
Education
Every kid between the ages of 6-14 go to school in Italy. More than 90 percent of them attend public schools. Through the Ministry of Education in Rome, the national government sets educational policies and selects the school system’s curricula and books. The required schooling is followed by a three-year junior high school. After they graduate from junior high school, students attend one of a lot of different kinds of senior high schools. A lot of the schools often have four or five year programs to study. The biggest group of students go to vocational schools, science schools, classical schools, teacher training schools, and language schools.
Any senior high school graduate may attend a university. Italy has 47 public universities. This country also has a few private universities, a lot of which are run by the Roman Catholic Church. Together, the universities enroll more than a million students each year. A lot of university programs last from four to six years.
University enrollment had been very heavy since the late 1960’s. The university of Rome, with an enrollment of about 170,000 is the biggest university in Italy. The university of Bologna, which dates from about 1100, is one of the world’s oldest universities.
Museums and Libraries
Italy is one of the world’s greatest centers of architecture, art, and books. A lot of its art museums rank among the most famous in the world. A lot of Italy’s museums are the famous palace of kings or the houses of royal families. These museums include the Pitti palace and the Uffizi Palace in Florence. National archaeological museums in Caglian, Naples, and Palermo contain artifacts from the earliest history of Italy. Displays in the national galleries in Naples, Palermor, and Urbino have paintings by Italian masters.
All large Italian cities have public libraries. The largest libraries in the country are the national central libraries in Florence and Rome. The one in Florence has about four and a half million volumes; the one in Rome has about three and a half million volumes. In Italy, people visit libraries only for serious study. Local libraries have little in the way of popular books for general readers, and children’s libraries are rare.
City Life
A lot more than two-thirds of Italy’s people live around the Urban Areas. Italians live in concrete apartment buildings. A few of the wealthy people live in single-family homes. The oldest parts of an Italian cities consist a lot of low buildings that have apartments around the central court yard. The newer sections of the city often have big apartment buildings. Most of the home owners by rather apartments than rent their apartments. The poor neighborhoods are usually located on the outer part of the city.
Most unmarried children live with their parents. Parents a lot of the time help an adult son or daughter near an apartment near their own. A lot of young women work outside of their house. Grandparents often help watch the children of working moms. Most of the urban areas have public child-care centers.
Cities grew because of the use of private cars which led to serious urban pollution. In big cities, the air pollution problems pose a health hazard and has damaged priceless architecture. Bologna and a lot of other cities have eased this problem by banning private cars from the city centers.
Rural Life
In the past, a lot of rural communities in Italy consisted of a big agreement surrounded by a big area of agricultural land. Farmers most of the time live in a town and travel to fields each day. This pattern was especially common in southern Italy. In the north, a lot of farmers live on their land.
Most of the rural townspeople live in apartment buildings. Only wealthy people had their own buildings, which was usually in the middle of the community. Today, more and more single-family homes are being built in rural areas, sometimes outside of the old communities.
Food and Drinks
The Italians take a lot of pride in their cooking. They usually eat their main meal at midday. They have big meals, such as a pasta meal, which
is followed by the main meal of either meat or fish. Sometimes they eat a meal of antipasto, which are appetizers. The antipasto has a lot of different cold meats and some vegetables, such as prosciutto (a type of ham,) salami, olives, and artichoke hearts.
Italian food differs a lot by the regions. In the north, flat, ribbon-shaped pastas get served with cream sauces are the most popular. In the south, macaroni is served with tomato-based sauces. Soups of all kinds usually take the spot of pasta as a first meal. Another popular meal is risotto, a rice plate with vegetables. The most popular meats are veal and pork. Cheeses are also important. They are either eaten alone or used in other meals. Pizza is a popular snack and is also eaten as a light meal. Fresh fruit is a popular desert. Traditionally, wine is served with every meal except breakfast.
Recreation
Italians like a wide amount of sports. Soccer is the most popular sport in Italy. Every major city has a professional soccer team. But soccer is not just a big sport- on the weekends. Italy’s parks are filled with kids and adults playing the game of soccer. Basketball is also very popular; some cities have more than one professional basketball team. Other popular sports are fishing, cycling, roller-skating, and baseball.
Family recreational activities are taking a traditional Sunday passeggiata (family stroll), driving to the seashore or the mountains, and watching TV. Italians insist going to the movies, but growing popularity of watching TV has led to a decline in the movie attendance.
Religion
About 95 percent of Italy’s people are Roman Catholics. Most baptisms, weddings, and funerals are held in churches, but only about 30 percent of all Italians attend church regularly. A lot of others occasionally attend church. An agreement called the Latheran Pact governs the relationship between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church. For instance, the part is about priests and other members of religious orders from military service and gives tax exemptions to Catholic organizations.
The Roman Catholic Church has had a strong influence on laws in the past, but that influence has weakened. For example, until 1970, the church was able to block attempts to legalize divorce in Italy. In 1978, voters didn’t allow the church position and voted to allow abortions.
Vatican City, the spiritual and governmental center of the Roman Catholic Church, lies entirely within the city of Rome. There are a lot of small religious people in Italy. These groups are Protestane, Muslim, and Jewish.
Education
Every kid between the ages of 6-14 go to school in Italy. More than 90 percent of them attend public schools. Through the Ministry of Education in Rome, the national government sets educational policies and selects the school system’s curricula and books. The required schooling is followed by a three-year junior high school. After they graduate from junior high school, students attend one of a lot of different kinds of senior high schools. A lot of the schools often have four or five year programs to study. The biggest group of students go to vocational schools, science schools, classical schools, teacher training schools, and language schools.
Any senior high school graduate may attend a university. Italy has 47 public universities. This country also has a few private universities, a lot of which are run by the Roman Catholic Church. Together, the universities enroll more than a million students each year. A lot of university programs last from four to six years.
University enrollment had been very heavy since the late 1960’s. The university of Rome, with an enrollment of about 170,000 is the biggest university in Italy. The university of Bologna, which dates from about 1100, is one of the world’s oldest universities.
Museums and Libraries
Italy is one of the world’s greatest centers of architecture, art, and books. A lot of its art museums rank among the most famous in the world. A lot of Italy’s museums are the famous palace of kings or the houses of royal families. These museums include the Pitti palace and the Uffizi Palace in Florence. National archaeological museums in Caglian, Naples, and Palermo contain artifacts from the earliest history of Italy. Displays in the national galleries in Naples, Palermor, and Urbino have paintings by Italian masters.
All large Italian cities have public libraries. The largest libraries in the country are the national central libraries in Florence and Rome. The one in Florence has about four and a half million volumes; the one in Rome has about three and a half million volumes. In Italy, people visit libraries only for serious study. Local libraries have little in the way of popular books for general readers, and children’s libraries are rare.
What is family life like in Britain ?
The family in Britain is changing. The once typical British family headed by two parents has undergone substantial changes during the twentieth century. In particular there has been a rise in the number of single-person households, which increased from 18 to 29 per cent of all households between 1971 and 2002. By the year 2020, it is estimated that there will be more single people than married people. Fifty years ago this would have been socially unacceptable in Britain.
In the past, people got married and stayed married. Divorce was very difficult, expensive and took a long time. Today, people's views on marriage are changing. Many couples, mostly in their twenties or thirties, live together (cohabit) without getting married. Only about 60% of these couples will eventually get married.
In the past, people married before they had children, but now about 40% of children in Britain are born to unmarried (cohabiting) parents. In 2000, around a quarter of unmarried people between the ages of 16 and 59 were cohabiting in Great Britain. Cohabiting couples are also starting families without first being married. Before 1960 this was very unusual, but in 2001 around 23 per cent of births in the UK were to cohabiting couples.
People are generally getting married at a later age now and many women do not want to have children immediately. They prefer to concentrate on their jobs and put off having a baby until late thirties.
The number of single-parent families is increasing. This is mainly due to more marriages ending in divorce, but some women are also choosing to have children as lone parents without being married.
Family Size
On average 2.4 people live as a family in one home Britain. This is smaller than most other European countries.
In the past, people got married and stayed married. Divorce was very difficult, expensive and took a long time. Today, people's views on marriage are changing. Many couples, mostly in their twenties or thirties, live together (cohabit) without getting married. Only about 60% of these couples will eventually get married.
In the past, people married before they had children, but now about 40% of children in Britain are born to unmarried (cohabiting) parents. In 2000, around a quarter of unmarried people between the ages of 16 and 59 were cohabiting in Great Britain. Cohabiting couples are also starting families without first being married. Before 1960 this was very unusual, but in 2001 around 23 per cent of births in the UK were to cohabiting couples.
People are generally getting married at a later age now and many women do not want to have children immediately. They prefer to concentrate on their jobs and put off having a baby until late thirties.
The number of single-parent families is increasing. This is mainly due to more marriages ending in divorce, but some women are also choosing to have children as lone parents without being married.
Family Size
On average 2.4 people live as a family in one home Britain. This is smaller than most other European countries.
The Social Aspect of Women in Islam
A) As a Daughter:
(1) The Quran ended the cruel practice of female infanticide, which was before Islam. God has said:
And when the girl (who was) buried alive is asked, for what sin she was killed. (Quran, 81:8-9)
(2) The Quran went further to rebuke the unwelcoming attitude of some parents upon hearing the news of the birth of a baby girl, instead of a baby boy. God has said:
And when one of them is informed of (the birth of) a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Certainly, evil is what they decide. (Quran 16:58-59)
(3) Parents are duty-bound to support and show kindness and justice to their daughters. The Prophet Muhammad said: {Whosoever supports two daughters until they mature, he and I will come on the Day of Judgment as this (and he pointed with his fingers held together).}
(4) A crucial aspect in the upbringing of daughters that greatly influences their future is education. Education is not only a right but a responsibility for all males and females. The Prophet Muhammad said: {Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim.} The word “Muslim” here is inclusive of both males and females.
(5) Islam neither requires nor encourages female circumcision. And while it is maybe practiced by some Muslims in certain parts of Africa, it is also practiced by other peoples, including Christians, in those places, a reflection merely of the local customs and practices there.
B) As a Wife:
(1) Marriage in Islam is based on mutual peace, love, and compassion, and not just the mere satisfying of human sexual desire. Among the most impressive verses in the Quran about marriage is the following:
And of His signs is: that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquility in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought. (Quran, 30:21, see also 42:11 and 2:228)
(2) The female has the right to accept or reject marriage proposals. According to the Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.
(3) The husband is responsible for the maintenance, protection, and overall leadership of the family, within the framework of consultation (see the Quran 2:233) and kindness (see the Quran 4:19). The mutuality and complementarity of husband and wife does not mean subservience by either party to the other. The Prophet Muhammad instructed Muslims regarding women: {I commend you to be good to women.} And {The best among you are those who are best to their wives.} The Quran urges husbands to be kind and considerate to their wives, even if a wife falls out of favor with her husband or disinclination for her arises within him:
...And live with them in kindness. For if you dislike them, perhaps you dislike a thing and God makes therein much good. (Quran, 4:19)
It also outlawed the Arabian practice before Islam whereby the stepson of the deceased father was allowed to take possession of his father’s widow(s) (inherit them) as if they were part of the estate of the deceased (see the Quran 4:19).
(4) Should marital disputes arise, the Quran encourages couples to resolve them privately in a spirit of fairness and probity. Indeed, the Quran outlines an enlightened step and wise approach for the husband and wife to resolve persistent conflict in their marital life. In the event that dispute cannot be resolved equitably between husband and wife, the Quran prescribes mediation between the parties through family intervention on behalf of both spouses (see the Quran 4:35).
(5) Divorce is a last resort, permissible but not encouraged, for the Quran esteems the preservation of faith and the individual’s right -male and female alike- to felicity. Forms of marriage dissolution include an enactment based upon mutual agreement, the husband’s initiative, the wife’s initiative (if part of her marital contract), the court’s decision on a wife’s initiative (for a legitimate reason), and the wife’s initiative without a cause, provided that she returns her marital gift to her husband. When the continuation of the marriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still taught to seek a gracious end for it. The Quran states about such cases:
And when you divorce women and they have fulfilled their term (i.e. waiting period), either keep them in kindness or release them in kindness, and do not keep them, intending harm, to transgress (against them). (Quran, 2:231, see also 2:229 and 33:49).
(6) Associating polygyny with Islam, as if it was introduced by it or is the norm according to its teachings, is one of the most persistent myths perpetuated in Western literature and media. Polygyny existed in almost all nations and was even sanctioned by Judaism and Christianity until recent centuries. Islam did not outlaw polygyny, as did many peoples and religious communities; rather, it regulated and restricted it. It is not required but simply permitted with conditions (see the Quran 4:3). Spirit of law, including timing of revelation, is to deal with individual and collective contingencies that may arise from time to time (e.g. imbalances between the number of males and females created by wars) and to provide a moral, practical, and humane solution for the problems of widows and orphans
(1) The Quran ended the cruel practice of female infanticide, which was before Islam. God has said:
And when the girl (who was) buried alive is asked, for what sin she was killed. (Quran, 81:8-9)
(2) The Quran went further to rebuke the unwelcoming attitude of some parents upon hearing the news of the birth of a baby girl, instead of a baby boy. God has said:
And when one of them is informed of (the birth of) a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Certainly, evil is what they decide. (Quran 16:58-59)
(3) Parents are duty-bound to support and show kindness and justice to their daughters. The Prophet Muhammad said: {Whosoever supports two daughters until they mature, he and I will come on the Day of Judgment as this (and he pointed with his fingers held together).}
(4) A crucial aspect in the upbringing of daughters that greatly influences their future is education. Education is not only a right but a responsibility for all males and females. The Prophet Muhammad said: {Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim.} The word “Muslim” here is inclusive of both males and females.
(5) Islam neither requires nor encourages female circumcision. And while it is maybe practiced by some Muslims in certain parts of Africa, it is also practiced by other peoples, including Christians, in those places, a reflection merely of the local customs and practices there.
B) As a Wife:
(1) Marriage in Islam is based on mutual peace, love, and compassion, and not just the mere satisfying of human sexual desire. Among the most impressive verses in the Quran about marriage is the following:
And of His signs is: that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquility in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought. (Quran, 30:21, see also 42:11 and 2:228)
(2) The female has the right to accept or reject marriage proposals. According to the Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.
(3) The husband is responsible for the maintenance, protection, and overall leadership of the family, within the framework of consultation (see the Quran 2:233) and kindness (see the Quran 4:19). The mutuality and complementarity of husband and wife does not mean subservience by either party to the other. The Prophet Muhammad instructed Muslims regarding women: {I commend you to be good to women.} And {The best among you are those who are best to their wives.} The Quran urges husbands to be kind and considerate to their wives, even if a wife falls out of favor with her husband or disinclination for her arises within him:
...And live with them in kindness. For if you dislike them, perhaps you dislike a thing and God makes therein much good. (Quran, 4:19)
It also outlawed the Arabian practice before Islam whereby the stepson of the deceased father was allowed to take possession of his father’s widow(s) (inherit them) as if they were part of the estate of the deceased (see the Quran 4:19).
(4) Should marital disputes arise, the Quran encourages couples to resolve them privately in a spirit of fairness and probity. Indeed, the Quran outlines an enlightened step and wise approach for the husband and wife to resolve persistent conflict in their marital life. In the event that dispute cannot be resolved equitably between husband and wife, the Quran prescribes mediation between the parties through family intervention on behalf of both spouses (see the Quran 4:35).
(5) Divorce is a last resort, permissible but not encouraged, for the Quran esteems the preservation of faith and the individual’s right -male and female alike- to felicity. Forms of marriage dissolution include an enactment based upon mutual agreement, the husband’s initiative, the wife’s initiative (if part of her marital contract), the court’s decision on a wife’s initiative (for a legitimate reason), and the wife’s initiative without a cause, provided that she returns her marital gift to her husband. When the continuation of the marriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still taught to seek a gracious end for it. The Quran states about such cases:
And when you divorce women and they have fulfilled their term (i.e. waiting period), either keep them in kindness or release them in kindness, and do not keep them, intending harm, to transgress (against them). (Quran, 2:231, see also 2:229 and 33:49).
(6) Associating polygyny with Islam, as if it was introduced by it or is the norm according to its teachings, is one of the most persistent myths perpetuated in Western literature and media. Polygyny existed in almost all nations and was even sanctioned by Judaism and Christianity until recent centuries. Islam did not outlaw polygyny, as did many peoples and religious communities; rather, it regulated and restricted it. It is not required but simply permitted with conditions (see the Quran 4:3). Spirit of law, including timing of revelation, is to deal with individual and collective contingencies that may arise from time to time (e.g. imbalances between the number of males and females created by wars) and to provide a moral, practical, and humane solution for the problems of widows and orphans
The Economic Aspect of Women in Islam:
The Right to Possess Personal Property: Islam decreed a right of which woman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as late as this century), the right of independent ownership. The Islamic Law recognizes the full property rights of women before and after marriage. They may buy, sell, or lease any or all of their properties at will. For this reason, Muslim women may keep (and in fact they have traditionally kept) their maiden names after marriage, an indication of their independent property rights as legal entities.
(2) Financial Security and Inheritance Laws: Financial security is assured for women. They are entitled to receive marital gifts without limit and to keep present and future properties and income for their own security, even after marriage. No married woman is required to spend any amount at all from her property and income on the household. The woman is entitled also to full financial support during marriage and during the “waiting period” (iddah) in case of divorce or widowhood. Some jurists require, in addition, one year’s support for divorce and widowhood (or until they remarry, if remarriage takes place before the year is over). A woman who bears a child in marriage is entitled to child support from the child’s father. Generally, a Muslim woman is guaranteed support in all stages of her life, as a daughter, wife, mother, or sister. The financial advantages accorded to women and not to men in marriage and in family have a social counterpart in the provisions that the Quran lays down in the laws of inheritance, which afford the male, in most cases, twice the inheritance of a female. Males inherit more but ultimately they are financially responsible for their female relatives: their wives, daughters, mothers, and sisters. Females inherit less but retain their share for investment and financial security, without any legal obligation to spend any part of it, even for their own sustenance (food, clothing, housing, medication, etc). It should be noted that before Islam, women themselves were sometimes objects of inheritance (see the Quran 4:19). In some western countries, even after the advent of Islam, the whole estate of the deceased was given to his/her eldest son. The Quran, however, made it clear that both men and women are entitled to a specified share of the estate of their deceased parents or close relatives. God has said:
For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for women is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, be it little or much, an obligatory share. (Quran, 4:7)
(3) Employment: With regard to the woman’s right to seek employment, it should be stated first that Islam regards her role in society as a mother and a wife as her most sacred and essential one. Neither maids nor baby sitters can possibly take the mother’s place as the educator of an upright, complex-free, and carefully-reared child. Such a noble and vital role, which largely shapes the future of nations, cannot be regarded as idleness. However, there is no decree in Islam that forbids women from seeking employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature best and in which society needs her most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially children), medicine, and social and charitable work.
(2) Financial Security and Inheritance Laws: Financial security is assured for women. They are entitled to receive marital gifts without limit and to keep present and future properties and income for their own security, even after marriage. No married woman is required to spend any amount at all from her property and income on the household. The woman is entitled also to full financial support during marriage and during the “waiting period” (iddah) in case of divorce or widowhood. Some jurists require, in addition, one year’s support for divorce and widowhood (or until they remarry, if remarriage takes place before the year is over). A woman who bears a child in marriage is entitled to child support from the child’s father. Generally, a Muslim woman is guaranteed support in all stages of her life, as a daughter, wife, mother, or sister. The financial advantages accorded to women and not to men in marriage and in family have a social counterpart in the provisions that the Quran lays down in the laws of inheritance, which afford the male, in most cases, twice the inheritance of a female. Males inherit more but ultimately they are financially responsible for their female relatives: their wives, daughters, mothers, and sisters. Females inherit less but retain their share for investment and financial security, without any legal obligation to spend any part of it, even for their own sustenance (food, clothing, housing, medication, etc). It should be noted that before Islam, women themselves were sometimes objects of inheritance (see the Quran 4:19). In some western countries, even after the advent of Islam, the whole estate of the deceased was given to his/her eldest son. The Quran, however, made it clear that both men and women are entitled to a specified share of the estate of their deceased parents or close relatives. God has said:
For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for women is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, be it little or much, an obligatory share. (Quran, 4:7)
(3) Employment: With regard to the woman’s right to seek employment, it should be stated first that Islam regards her role in society as a mother and a wife as her most sacred and essential one. Neither maids nor baby sitters can possibly take the mother’s place as the educator of an upright, complex-free, and carefully-reared child. Such a noble and vital role, which largely shapes the future of nations, cannot be regarded as idleness. However, there is no decree in Islam that forbids women from seeking employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature best and in which society needs her most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially children), medicine, and social and charitable work.
Foundations of Spiritual and Human Equity in Islam:
Equity in Islam:
In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide desert of Arabia in the seventh Century with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity, described below.
(1) According to the Holy Quran, men and women have the same human spiritual nature:
O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women... (Quran, 4:1, see also 7:189, 42:11, 16:72, 32:9, and 15:29).
(2) God has invested both genders with inherent dignity and has made men and women, collectively, the trustees of God on earth (see the Quran 17:70 and 2:30).
(3) The Quran does not blame woman for the “fall of man,” nor does it view pregnancy and childbirth as punishments for “eating from the forbidden tree.” On the contrary, the Quran depicts Adam and Eve as equally responsible for their sin in the Garden, never singling out Eve for blame. Both repented, and both were forgiven (see the Quran 2:36-37 and 7:19-27). In fact, in one verse (Quran 20:121) Adam specifically was blamed. The Quran also esteems pregnancy and childbirth as sufficient reasons for the love and respect due to mothers from their children (Quran 31:14 and 46:15).
(4) Men and women have the same religious and moral duties and responsibilities. Each human being shall face the consequences of his or her deeds:
And their Lord responded to them (saying): Never will I allow to be lost the work of (any) worker among you, whether male or female; you are of one another... (Quran, 3:195, see also 74:38, 16:97, 4:124, 33:35, and 57:12).
(5) The Quran is quite clear about the issue of the claimed superiority or inferiority of any human, male or female. The sole basis for superiority of any person over another is piety and righteousness not gender, color, or nationality (see the Quran 49:13).
In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide desert of Arabia in the seventh Century with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity, described below.
(1) According to the Holy Quran, men and women have the same human spiritual nature:
O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women... (Quran, 4:1, see also 7:189, 42:11, 16:72, 32:9, and 15:29).
(2) God has invested both genders with inherent dignity and has made men and women, collectively, the trustees of God on earth (see the Quran 17:70 and 2:30).
(3) The Quran does not blame woman for the “fall of man,” nor does it view pregnancy and childbirth as punishments for “eating from the forbidden tree.” On the contrary, the Quran depicts Adam and Eve as equally responsible for their sin in the Garden, never singling out Eve for blame. Both repented, and both were forgiven (see the Quran 2:36-37 and 7:19-27). In fact, in one verse (Quran 20:121) Adam specifically was blamed. The Quran also esteems pregnancy and childbirth as sufficient reasons for the love and respect due to mothers from their children (Quran 31:14 and 46:15).
(4) Men and women have the same religious and moral duties and responsibilities. Each human being shall face the consequences of his or her deeds:
And their Lord responded to them (saying): Never will I allow to be lost the work of (any) worker among you, whether male or female; you are of one another... (Quran, 3:195, see also 74:38, 16:97, 4:124, 33:35, and 57:12).
(5) The Quran is quite clear about the issue of the claimed superiority or inferiority of any human, male or female. The sole basis for superiority of any person over another is piety and righteousness not gender, color, or nationality (see the Quran 49:13).
Women in Ancient Civilizations:
One major objective of this article is to provide a fair evaluation of what Islam contributed toward the restoration of woman’s dignity and rights. In order to achieve this objective, it may be useful to review briefly how women were treated in general in previous civilizations and religions, especially those which preceded Islam (before 610 AD). Part of the information provided here, however, describes the status of woman as late as this century, more than 13 centuries after Islam.
(1) Describing the status of the Indian woman, The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, states: “In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by their protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was agnatic, that is descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.” In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife is as follows: “a woman whose mind, speech and body are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in the next, the same abode with her husband.” (Mace, Marriage East and West).
(2) In Athens, women were not better off than either the Indian or the Roman women: “Athenian women were always minors, subject to some male - to their father, to their brother, or to some of their male kin.” (Allen, E. A., History of Civilization). Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to be necessary and “she was obliged to submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, even though he were stranger to her.” (Previous Source)
(3) A Roman wife was described by a historian as: “a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing or acting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continually under the tutelage and guardianship of her husband.” (Previous Source). In The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, we find a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman civilization: “In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If married she and her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was the purchased property of her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office . . . could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make will or contract.”
(4) Among the Scandinavian races women were: “under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct of her goods during her life.” (The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911).
(5) In Britain, the right of married women to own property was not recognized until the late 19th Century, “By a series of acts starting with the Married Women’s Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, married women achieved the right to own property and to enter into contracts on a par with spinsters, widows, and divorcees.” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1968). In France, it was not until 1938 that the French Law was amended so as to recognize the eligibility of women to contract. A married woman, however, was still required to secure her husband’s permission before she could dispense with her private property.
(6) In the Mosaic (Jewish) Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the Encyclopedia Biblica, 1902, states: “To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply to acquire possession of her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a girl for whom the purchase money has been paid.” From the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the validation of her marriage. “The girl’s consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowhere suggested in the Law.” (Previous Source). As to the right of divorce, we read in the Encyclopedia Biblica: “The woman being man’s property, his right to divorce her follows as a matter of course.” The right to divorce was held only by man, The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, states: “In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the husband only...”
(7) The position of the Christian Church until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by both the Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporary cultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote: “Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading references to the female sex than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian, speaks of ‘these fierce incentives which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the devil.’ One of the most scathing of these attacks on woman is that of Tertullian: ‘Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age; the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil’s gateway; you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first deserters of the divine law; you are she who persuades him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack.’ Not only did the church affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had previously enjoyed.”
(1) Describing the status of the Indian woman, The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, states: “In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by their protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was agnatic, that is descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.” In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife is as follows: “a woman whose mind, speech and body are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in the next, the same abode with her husband.” (Mace, Marriage East and West).
(2) In Athens, women were not better off than either the Indian or the Roman women: “Athenian women were always minors, subject to some male - to their father, to their brother, or to some of their male kin.” (Allen, E. A., History of Civilization). Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to be necessary and “she was obliged to submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, even though he were stranger to her.” (Previous Source)
(3) A Roman wife was described by a historian as: “a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing or acting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continually under the tutelage and guardianship of her husband.” (Previous Source). In The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, we find a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman civilization: “In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If married she and her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was the purchased property of her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office . . . could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make will or contract.”
(4) Among the Scandinavian races women were: “under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct of her goods during her life.” (The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911).
(5) In Britain, the right of married women to own property was not recognized until the late 19th Century, “By a series of acts starting with the Married Women’s Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, married women achieved the right to own property and to enter into contracts on a par with spinsters, widows, and divorcees.” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1968). In France, it was not until 1938 that the French Law was amended so as to recognize the eligibility of women to contract. A married woman, however, was still required to secure her husband’s permission before she could dispense with her private property.
(6) In the Mosaic (Jewish) Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the Encyclopedia Biblica, 1902, states: “To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply to acquire possession of her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a girl for whom the purchase money has been paid.” From the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the validation of her marriage. “The girl’s consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowhere suggested in the Law.” (Previous Source). As to the right of divorce, we read in the Encyclopedia Biblica: “The woman being man’s property, his right to divorce her follows as a matter of course.” The right to divorce was held only by man, The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, states: “In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the husband only...”
(7) The position of the Christian Church until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by both the Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporary cultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote: “Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading references to the female sex than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian, speaks of ‘these fierce incentives which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the devil.’ One of the most scathing of these attacks on woman is that of Tertullian: ‘Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age; the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil’s gateway; you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first deserters of the divine law; you are she who persuades him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack.’ Not only did the church affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had previously enjoyed.”
How Do Muslims View Death?
Muslims believe that the present life is a trial in preparation for the next realm of existence. When a Muslim dies, he or she is washed and wrapped in a clean, white cloth (usually by a family member) and buried after a special prayer, preferably the same day. Muslims consider this a final service that they can do for their relatives and an opportunity to remember that their own existence here on earth is brief.
The question of whether there is life after death does not fall under the jurisdiction of science, as science is concerned only with classification and analysis of sense data. Moreover, man has been busy with scientific inquiries and research, in the modern sense of the term, only for the last few centuries, while he has been familiar with the concept of life after death since time immemorial.All the Prophets of God called their people to worship God and to believe in life after death. They laid so much emphasis on the belief in life after death that even a slight doubt in it meant denying God and made all other beliefs meaningless.
The very fact that all the Prophets of God have dealt with this metaphysical question of life after death so confidently and so uniformly - the gap between their ages in some cases, being thousands of years - goes to prove that the source of their knowledge of life after death as proclaimed by them all, was the same, i.e. Divine revelation.
We also know that these Prophets of God were greatly opposed by their people, mainly on the issue of life after death, as their people thought it impossible. But in spite of opposition, the Prophets won many sincere followers.
The question arises: what made those followers forsake the established beliefs, traditions and customs of their forefathers, notwithstanding the risk of being totally alienated from their own community? The simple answer is: they made use of their faculties of mind and heart and realized the truth.
Did they realize the truth through perceptual consciousness? They couldn’t, as perceptual experience of life after death is impossible. God has given man besides perceptual consciousness, rational, aesthetic and moral consciousness too. It is this consciousness that guides man regarding realities that cannot be verified through sensory data. That is why all the Prophets of God while calling people to believe in God and life after death, appeal to the aesthetic, moral and rational consciousness of man.
For example, when the idolaters of Makkah denied even the possibility of life after death, the Quran exposed the weakness of their stand by advancing very logical and rational arguments in support of it:
And he (i.e. man) presents for Us an example (i.e. attempting to establish the finality of death) and forgets his [own] creation. He says, “Who will give life to bones while they are disintegrated?” Say, “He will give them life who produced them the first time; and He is, of all creation, Knowing.” [It is] He who made for you from the green tree, fire, and then from it you ignite. Is not He who created the heavens and the earth Able to create the likes of them? Yes, [it is so]; and He is the Knowing Creator. (Quran, 36:78-81)
On another occasion, the Quran very clearly says that the disbelievers have no sound basis for their denial of life after death. It is based on pure conjecture:
And they say, “There is not but our worldly life; we die and live (i.e. some people die and others live, replacing them) and nothing destroys us except time.” And they have of that no knowledge; they are only assuming. And when Our verses are recited to them as clear evidences, their argument is only that they say, “Bring [back] our forefathers, if you should be truthful.” Say, “God causes you to live, then causes you to die; then He will assemble you for the Day of Resurrection, about which there is no doubt,” but most of the people do not know. (Quran, 45:24-26)
Surely God will raise all the dead. But God has His own plan of things. A day will come when the whole universe will be destroyed and then the dead will be resurrected to stand before God. That day will be the beginning of a life that will never end, and on that day every person will be rewarded by God according to his or her good or evil deeds.
The explanation that the Quran gives about the necessity of life after death is what the moral consciousness of man demands. Actually, if there is no life after death, the very belief in God becomes meaningless or even if one believes in God, it would be n unjust and indifferent God, having once created man and now not being concerned with his fate.
Surely, God is just. He will punish the tyrants, whose crimes are beyond count - having tortured and killed hundreds or thousands of innocent people, created great corruption in society, enslaved numerous persons to serve their whims, etc., because man has a very short life span in this world and because numerous individuals are affected by one’s actions, adequate punishments and rewards are not possible in this life. The Quran very emphatically states that the Day of Judgment must come and that God will decide the fate of each soul according to his or her record of deeds:
But those who disbelieve say, “The Hour (i.e. the Day of Judgment) will not come to us.” Say, “Yes, by my Lord, it will surely come to you. [God is] the Knower of the unseen.” Not absent from Him is an atom’s weight within the heavens or within the earth or [what is] smaller than that or greater, except that it is in a clear register - That He may reward those who believe and do righteous deeds. Those will have forgiveness and noble provision. But those who strive against Our verses [seeking] to cause failure (i.e. to undermine their credibility) - for them will be a painful punishment of foul nature. (Quran, 34:3-5)
The Day of Resurrection will be the Day when God’s attributes of Justice and Mercy will be in full manifestation. God will shower His mercy on those who suffered for His sake in the worldly life, believing that an eternal bliss was awaiting them. But those who abused the bounties of God, caring nothing for the life to come, will be in the most miserable state. Drawing a comparison between them, the Quran says:
Then is he whom We have promised a good promise which he will meet [i.e. obtain] like he for whom We provided enjoyment of worldly life [but] then he is, on the Day of Resurrection, among those presented [for punishment in Hell]? (Quran, 28:61)
The Quran also states that this worldly life is a preparation for the eternal life after death. But those who deny it become slaves of their passions and desires, making fun of virtuous and God-conscious persons.
Such persons realize their folly only at the time of their death and wish to be given a further chance in the world but in vain. Their miserable state at the time of death, and the horror of the Day of Judgment, and the eternal bliss guaranteed to the sincere believers are very clearly and beautifully mentioned in the following verses of the Quran:
[For such is the state of the disbelievers], until, when death comes to one of them, he says, “My Lord, send me back that I might do righteousness in that which I left behind (i.e. in that which I neglected).” No! It is only a word he is saying; and behind them is a barrier until the Day they are resurrected. So when the Horn is blown, no relationship will there be among them that Day, nor will they ask about one another. And those whose scales are heavy [with good deeds] - it is they who are the successful. But those whose scales are light - those are the ones who have lost their souls, [being] in Hell, abiding eternally. The Fire will sear their faces, and they therein will have taut smiles (i.e. their lips having been contracted by scorching until the teeth are exposed). (Quran, 23:99-104)
The belief in life after death not only guarantees success in the Hereafter but also makes this world full of peace and happiness by making individuals most responsible and dutiful in their activities.
Think of the people of Arabia before the arrival of the Prophet Muhammad . Gambling, wine, tribal feuds, plundering and murdering were their main traits when they had no belief in life after death. But as soon as they accepted the belief in the One God and life after death they became the most disciplined nation of the world. They gave up their vices, helped each other in hours of need, and settled all their disputes on the basis of justice and equality. Similarly the denial of life after death has its consequences not only in the Hereafter but also in this world. When a nation as a whole denies it, all kinds of evils and corruption become rampant in that society and ultimately it is destroyed.
The Quran mentions the terrible end of Aad, Thamud and the Pharaoh in some detail:
[The tribes of] Thamud and Aad denied the Striking Calamity [i.e. the Resurrection]. So as for Thamud, they were destroyed by the overpowering [blast]. And as for Aad, they were destroyed by a screaming, violent wind which He [i.e. God] imposed upon them for seven nights and eight days in succession, so you would see the people therein fallen as if they were hollow trunks of palm trees. Then do you see of them any remains? And there came Pharaoh and those before him and the overturned cities (i.e. those to which Lot was sent) with sin. And they disobeyed the messenger of their Lord, so He seized them with a seizure exceeding [in severity]. Indeed, when the water overflowed, We carried you [i.e. your ancestors] in the sailing ship (i.e. which was constructed by Noah). That We might make it for you a reminder and [that] a conscious ear would be conscious of it. (Quran, 69:4-12)
Events of the Day of Judgment
God states in the Quran about the events of the Day of Judgment:
Then when the Horn is blown with one blast, and the earth and the mountains are lifted and leveled with one blow [i.e. stroke] - Then on that Day, the Occurrence [i.e. Resurrection] will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm (i.e. weak, enfeebled and unstable). And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them]. That Day, you will be exhibited [for judgment]; not hidden among you is anything concealed (i.e. any person or any secret you might attempt to conceal). So as for he who is given his record in his right hand, he will say, “Here, read my record! Indeed, I was certain that I would be meeting my account.” So he will be in a pleasant life - In an elevated Garden, Its [fruit] to be picked hanging near. [They will be told], “Eat and drink in satisfaction for what you put forth (i.e. literally, advanced in anticipation of reward in the Hereafter) in the days past.” But as for he who is given his record in his left hand, he will say, “Oh, I wish I had not been given my record, and had not known what is my account. I wish it [i.e. my death] had been the decisive one (i.e. ending life rather than being the gateway to eternal life). My wealth has not availed me. Gone from me is my authority.” [God will say], “Seize him and shackle him. Then into Hellfire drive him. Then into a chain whose length is seventy cubits insert him.” Indeed, he did not used to believe in God, the Most Great. (Quran, 69:13-33)
The Prophet Muhammad taught that three things continue to benefit a [believing] person even after death - charity which he had given (which continues to benefit others), beneficial knowledge which he had left behind (i.e. authored or taught), and supplication on his behalf by a righteous child (Narrated by Saheeh Muslim).
Thus, there are very convincing reasons to believe in life after death:
1) All the Prophets of God have called their people to believe in it.
2) Whenever a human society is built on the basis of this belief, it has been the most ideal and peaceful society, free of social and moral evils.
3) History bears witness that whenever this belief is rejected collectively by a group of people in spite of the repeated warning of the Prophet, the group as a whole has been punished by God even in this world.
4) Moral, aesthetic and rational faculties of man endorse the possibility of the life after death.
5) God’s attributes of Justice and Mercy have no meaning if there is no life after death
The question of whether there is life after death does not fall under the jurisdiction of science, as science is concerned only with classification and analysis of sense data. Moreover, man has been busy with scientific inquiries and research, in the modern sense of the term, only for the last few centuries, while he has been familiar with the concept of life after death since time immemorial.All the Prophets of God called their people to worship God and to believe in life after death. They laid so much emphasis on the belief in life after death that even a slight doubt in it meant denying God and made all other beliefs meaningless.
The very fact that all the Prophets of God have dealt with this metaphysical question of life after death so confidently and so uniformly - the gap between their ages in some cases, being thousands of years - goes to prove that the source of their knowledge of life after death as proclaimed by them all, was the same, i.e. Divine revelation.
We also know that these Prophets of God were greatly opposed by their people, mainly on the issue of life after death, as their people thought it impossible. But in spite of opposition, the Prophets won many sincere followers.
The question arises: what made those followers forsake the established beliefs, traditions and customs of their forefathers, notwithstanding the risk of being totally alienated from their own community? The simple answer is: they made use of their faculties of mind and heart and realized the truth.
Did they realize the truth through perceptual consciousness? They couldn’t, as perceptual experience of life after death is impossible. God has given man besides perceptual consciousness, rational, aesthetic and moral consciousness too. It is this consciousness that guides man regarding realities that cannot be verified through sensory data. That is why all the Prophets of God while calling people to believe in God and life after death, appeal to the aesthetic, moral and rational consciousness of man.
For example, when the idolaters of Makkah denied even the possibility of life after death, the Quran exposed the weakness of their stand by advancing very logical and rational arguments in support of it:
And he (i.e. man) presents for Us an example (i.e. attempting to establish the finality of death) and forgets his [own] creation. He says, “Who will give life to bones while they are disintegrated?” Say, “He will give them life who produced them the first time; and He is, of all creation, Knowing.” [It is] He who made for you from the green tree, fire, and then from it you ignite. Is not He who created the heavens and the earth Able to create the likes of them? Yes, [it is so]; and He is the Knowing Creator. (Quran, 36:78-81)
On another occasion, the Quran very clearly says that the disbelievers have no sound basis for their denial of life after death. It is based on pure conjecture:
And they say, “There is not but our worldly life; we die and live (i.e. some people die and others live, replacing them) and nothing destroys us except time.” And they have of that no knowledge; they are only assuming. And when Our verses are recited to them as clear evidences, their argument is only that they say, “Bring [back] our forefathers, if you should be truthful.” Say, “God causes you to live, then causes you to die; then He will assemble you for the Day of Resurrection, about which there is no doubt,” but most of the people do not know. (Quran, 45:24-26)
Surely God will raise all the dead. But God has His own plan of things. A day will come when the whole universe will be destroyed and then the dead will be resurrected to stand before God. That day will be the beginning of a life that will never end, and on that day every person will be rewarded by God according to his or her good or evil deeds.
The explanation that the Quran gives about the necessity of life after death is what the moral consciousness of man demands. Actually, if there is no life after death, the very belief in God becomes meaningless or even if one believes in God, it would be n unjust and indifferent God, having once created man and now not being concerned with his fate.
Surely, God is just. He will punish the tyrants, whose crimes are beyond count - having tortured and killed hundreds or thousands of innocent people, created great corruption in society, enslaved numerous persons to serve their whims, etc., because man has a very short life span in this world and because numerous individuals are affected by one’s actions, adequate punishments and rewards are not possible in this life. The Quran very emphatically states that the Day of Judgment must come and that God will decide the fate of each soul according to his or her record of deeds:
But those who disbelieve say, “The Hour (i.e. the Day of Judgment) will not come to us.” Say, “Yes, by my Lord, it will surely come to you. [God is] the Knower of the unseen.” Not absent from Him is an atom’s weight within the heavens or within the earth or [what is] smaller than that or greater, except that it is in a clear register - That He may reward those who believe and do righteous deeds. Those will have forgiveness and noble provision. But those who strive against Our verses [seeking] to cause failure (i.e. to undermine their credibility) - for them will be a painful punishment of foul nature. (Quran, 34:3-5)
The Day of Resurrection will be the Day when God’s attributes of Justice and Mercy will be in full manifestation. God will shower His mercy on those who suffered for His sake in the worldly life, believing that an eternal bliss was awaiting them. But those who abused the bounties of God, caring nothing for the life to come, will be in the most miserable state. Drawing a comparison between them, the Quran says:
Then is he whom We have promised a good promise which he will meet [i.e. obtain] like he for whom We provided enjoyment of worldly life [but] then he is, on the Day of Resurrection, among those presented [for punishment in Hell]? (Quran, 28:61)
The Quran also states that this worldly life is a preparation for the eternal life after death. But those who deny it become slaves of their passions and desires, making fun of virtuous and God-conscious persons.
Such persons realize their folly only at the time of their death and wish to be given a further chance in the world but in vain. Their miserable state at the time of death, and the horror of the Day of Judgment, and the eternal bliss guaranteed to the sincere believers are very clearly and beautifully mentioned in the following verses of the Quran:
[For such is the state of the disbelievers], until, when death comes to one of them, he says, “My Lord, send me back that I might do righteousness in that which I left behind (i.e. in that which I neglected).” No! It is only a word he is saying; and behind them is a barrier until the Day they are resurrected. So when the Horn is blown, no relationship will there be among them that Day, nor will they ask about one another. And those whose scales are heavy [with good deeds] - it is they who are the successful. But those whose scales are light - those are the ones who have lost their souls, [being] in Hell, abiding eternally. The Fire will sear their faces, and they therein will have taut smiles (i.e. their lips having been contracted by scorching until the teeth are exposed). (Quran, 23:99-104)
The belief in life after death not only guarantees success in the Hereafter but also makes this world full of peace and happiness by making individuals most responsible and dutiful in their activities.
Think of the people of Arabia before the arrival of the Prophet Muhammad . Gambling, wine, tribal feuds, plundering and murdering were their main traits when they had no belief in life after death. But as soon as they accepted the belief in the One God and life after death they became the most disciplined nation of the world. They gave up their vices, helped each other in hours of need, and settled all their disputes on the basis of justice and equality. Similarly the denial of life after death has its consequences not only in the Hereafter but also in this world. When a nation as a whole denies it, all kinds of evils and corruption become rampant in that society and ultimately it is destroyed.
The Quran mentions the terrible end of Aad, Thamud and the Pharaoh in some detail:
[The tribes of] Thamud and Aad denied the Striking Calamity [i.e. the Resurrection]. So as for Thamud, they were destroyed by the overpowering [blast]. And as for Aad, they were destroyed by a screaming, violent wind which He [i.e. God] imposed upon them for seven nights and eight days in succession, so you would see the people therein fallen as if they were hollow trunks of palm trees. Then do you see of them any remains? And there came Pharaoh and those before him and the overturned cities (i.e. those to which Lot was sent) with sin. And they disobeyed the messenger of their Lord, so He seized them with a seizure exceeding [in severity]. Indeed, when the water overflowed, We carried you [i.e. your ancestors] in the sailing ship (i.e. which was constructed by Noah). That We might make it for you a reminder and [that] a conscious ear would be conscious of it. (Quran, 69:4-12)
Events of the Day of Judgment
God states in the Quran about the events of the Day of Judgment:
Then when the Horn is blown with one blast, and the earth and the mountains are lifted and leveled with one blow [i.e. stroke] - Then on that Day, the Occurrence [i.e. Resurrection] will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm (i.e. weak, enfeebled and unstable). And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them]. That Day, you will be exhibited [for judgment]; not hidden among you is anything concealed (i.e. any person or any secret you might attempt to conceal). So as for he who is given his record in his right hand, he will say, “Here, read my record! Indeed, I was certain that I would be meeting my account.” So he will be in a pleasant life - In an elevated Garden, Its [fruit] to be picked hanging near. [They will be told], “Eat and drink in satisfaction for what you put forth (i.e. literally, advanced in anticipation of reward in the Hereafter) in the days past.” But as for he who is given his record in his left hand, he will say, “Oh, I wish I had not been given my record, and had not known what is my account. I wish it [i.e. my death] had been the decisive one (i.e. ending life rather than being the gateway to eternal life). My wealth has not availed me. Gone from me is my authority.” [God will say], “Seize him and shackle him. Then into Hellfire drive him. Then into a chain whose length is seventy cubits insert him.” Indeed, he did not used to believe in God, the Most Great. (Quran, 69:13-33)
The Prophet Muhammad taught that three things continue to benefit a [believing] person even after death - charity which he had given (which continues to benefit others), beneficial knowledge which he had left behind (i.e. authored or taught), and supplication on his behalf by a righteous child (Narrated by Saheeh Muslim).
Thus, there are very convincing reasons to believe in life after death:
1) All the Prophets of God have called their people to believe in it.
2) Whenever a human society is built on the basis of this belief, it has been the most ideal and peaceful society, free of social and moral evils.
3) History bears witness that whenever this belief is rejected collectively by a group of people in spite of the repeated warning of the Prophet, the group as a whole has been punished by God even in this world.
4) Moral, aesthetic and rational faculties of man endorse the possibility of the life after death.
5) God’s attributes of Justice and Mercy have no meaning if there is no life after death
United States Money & Costs. USA Cost of Life
Cash US dollars and 'convertible pesos' (equal to US greenbacks in Cuba; worth the same as Monopoly money elsewhere) remain the currency of choice at state-owned and licensed private hotels and restaurants; bus, train and airline offices; and most other tourist-oriented enterprises. Cuban pesos, or moneda nacional, can be used at local venta libre stores, cafeterias and street stands, cinemas, and many other businesses away from popular tourist destinations. Candeca, with kiosks throughout Cuba, changes currency at fair rates. Credit cards issued by US companies may be accepted, but be aware that the US could theoretically confiscate the entire transaction, leaving you high, dry and further in debt. A Visa or MasterCard (or two) issued by a non-US bank is the way to go. Traveler's checks denominated in US dollars, even those issued by US banks (at last report, the Banco Financiero Internacional was happily accepting American Express), can be cashed with a 2.5-4% commission. For a Caribbean destination, Cuba is still reasonably affordable, though not cheap. A double room in a medium-priced beachside resort runs US$50, US$100 all-inclusive. The same room in a state-run hotel costs around US$35, and in a private residence US$15-25. A meal in a state-run restaurant is US$10-15, while dinner for one at a paladar (privately owned restaurant) averages US$7. Taking the bus or train runs about US$4 for 100 miles (160km), while a rental car could cost as much as US$100 a day, more than in neighboring Florida. Cuban tourism workers rely on tips. People who deserve a US$1 tip include museum staff who give you a complete tour, hotel guards who watch your rental car all night, helpful bus drivers, attentive waitstaff or anyone in the service industry who goes beyond the call of duty.Do not offer money to officials to obtain preferential treatment; governmental corruption is rare in Cuba and attempted bribery will only make things worse. Paladars may or may not add 10-20% onto your bill as a 'tax' or 'service charge.' If you suspect a scam, ask to keep the bill and see what happens. All private businesses are heavily taxed to discourage competition with state-run entities, and the added costs are, of course, passed on to you. Avoid jineteros (touts) who offer to lead you to a room or restaurant, unless you don't mind having an extra US$5 or so tacked onto your bill. Refrain from handing out money or anything else to children or beggars on the street. Cubans are not allowed to beg from tourists, and plainclothes police are on duty in most places where tourists and Cubans mix. It may be gratifying to hand out trinkets to people you view as needy, but these people could be questioned as soon as you disappear from sight, and you may be personally responsible for sending someone to prison
Life in Ancient Egypt
Because of its location at the crossroads of the African and Asian continents, Egypt has been an important geographical and political power since the earliest times. In ancient times, the boundaries of Egypt were the Mediterranean Sea to the north and Elephantine (modern Aswan) to the south. Its eastern and western boundaries were in the high desert on either side of the narrow strip of Nile valley and low desert. The Nile River, the most important geographic feature in the area, runs the length of the country, flowing from south to north.
Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions: Upper and Lower Egypt. Lower (northern) Egypt consisted of the Nile River's delta made by the river as it empties into the Mediterranean. Today the Delta is fifteen thousand square miles of alluvium (silt), which has been deposited over the centuries by the annual flooding of the Nile. For much of Egypt's history, this area was only thinly settled, although it was used as a grazing area for cattle.
Upper Egypt was the long, narrow strip of ancient Egypt located south of the Delta. This area is composed of four topographic zones: the Nile River, the floodplain, the low desert, and the high desert. Each of these zones was exploited differently by the ancient Egyptians.
Throughout their history, Egyptians shared a common language, world view, and institutional structure, as well as a common territory. Ancient Egyptians had a keen sense of the distinctiveness and superiority of their culture, and they struggled to maintain it. Many of the rituals they performed encouraged continuity with earlier periods of their history that they visualized as ideal.
Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions: Upper and Lower Egypt. Lower (northern) Egypt consisted of the Nile River's delta made by the river as it empties into the Mediterranean. Today the Delta is fifteen thousand square miles of alluvium (silt), which has been deposited over the centuries by the annual flooding of the Nile. For much of Egypt's history, this area was only thinly settled, although it was used as a grazing area for cattle.
Upper Egypt was the long, narrow strip of ancient Egypt located south of the Delta. This area is composed of four topographic zones: the Nile River, the floodplain, the low desert, and the high desert. Each of these zones was exploited differently by the ancient Egyptians.
Throughout their history, Egyptians shared a common language, world view, and institutional structure, as well as a common territory. Ancient Egyptians had a keen sense of the distinctiveness and superiority of their culture, and they struggled to maintain it. Many of the rituals they performed encouraged continuity with earlier periods of their history that they visualized as ideal.
What is AdSense?
AdSense is Google's program for placing its AdWords ads on non-Google websites such as this one.
AdSense lets website owners like you and me make money easily and fast without even selling anything. In fact you can often start earning in under 24 hours and when you get paid, it is Google that sends you a check!
You don't have to run a large site or have much traffic to make money and AdSense works for small enthusiast or hobby sites as well as larger operations.
AdSense is easy - but here's how to make real money
Some websites make a lot of money from AdSense (thousands of dollars a month!) whilst others make very little and there are many complex reasons why earnings differ.
I've been using AdSense since it was launched and am hugely enthusiastic about it. I've written a 5-day course about AdSense that explains
where the money comes from
what you have to do to start out fast
how much money you can make
what clicks are worth
how to put a rocket-engine behind your earnings
whether you can cheat
how to build a site for AdSense fast and easily
how to get going without spending any money
It's free and there's no obligation whatsoever.
To get the first installment in your in-tray in a few minutes just complete the form below.
I also discuss some unique and risky experiments I've done in my AdSense lab as I unpicked the AdSense system. (I was lucky not to get banned for doing some of these! Don't try them yourself. You can also read what Google had to say to me about them.)
Like a link to a presentation by Google about AdSense that few people know about? Written for advertisers, it explains Google's view on why AdSense is so useful for businesses. You can get it here too
AdSense lets website owners like you and me make money easily and fast without even selling anything. In fact you can often start earning in under 24 hours and when you get paid, it is Google that sends you a check!
You don't have to run a large site or have much traffic to make money and AdSense works for small enthusiast or hobby sites as well as larger operations.
AdSense is easy - but here's how to make real money
Some websites make a lot of money from AdSense (thousands of dollars a month!) whilst others make very little and there are many complex reasons why earnings differ.
I've been using AdSense since it was launched and am hugely enthusiastic about it. I've written a 5-day course about AdSense that explains
where the money comes from
what you have to do to start out fast
how much money you can make
what clicks are worth
how to put a rocket-engine behind your earnings
whether you can cheat
how to build a site for AdSense fast and easily
how to get going without spending any money
It's free and there's no obligation whatsoever.
To get the first installment in your in-tray in a few minutes just complete the form below.
I also discuss some unique and risky experiments I've done in my AdSense lab as I unpicked the AdSense system. (I was lucky not to get banned for doing some of these! Don't try them yourself. You can also read what Google had to say to me about them.)
Like a link to a presentation by Google about AdSense that few people know about? Written for advertisers, it explains Google's view on why AdSense is so useful for businesses. You can get it here too
يوم فى مستشفى حكومى
لقد كنت من الذين يرون ان الحياة جميلة ومليئة بالتفاؤول وهناك دائما من يريد تعكير صفوها بأفتراءات . ولقد تغيرت نظرتى تماما عندما ذهبت لزيارة جدى فى المشفى الحكومى وهذا ماسأقصه عليكم فى السطور التالية
فى صباح يوم الاحد كنت فى الخارج مع ابن خالتى الذى يصغرنى بسنتين وتلقيت مكالمة على التليفون المحمول فوجدتها والدتى تخبرنى ان جدى قد نقل من المستشفى الخاص الى المستشفى الحكومى وكنت لم ازوره فى المستشفى الخاص فتزاحمت الافكار فى رأسى .هل نقلوه لارتفاع نفقات علاجه وماالفارق بين الخاص والحكومى هل هناك رعايه فى الخاص افضل من الحكومة ؟ ولماذا التفرقة بين الغنى والفقير ؟
واخبرت امى اننى ذاهب الى المستشفى حالا . اخذت العنوان وذهبت الى المستشفى وابن خالتى مرافقا لى
وصلنا الى المستشفى بعد عذاب المواصلات وانتظار الاتوبيس فوجد حارسا على الباب اخبرته انى اريد الدخول لرؤية جدى فى العناية المركزة .
تذكرة ياسيد" هكذا نطق الحارس قلت له اعطنى اثنتين رد قائلا 2:50 اعطيته النقود واعطانى التذاكر وسألته من فضلك كيف اذهب الى العناية المركزة " اجاب بأقتضاب " " أسأل بالداخل " وكأنه ليس موظفا بالمشفى
ووصلت اخيرا الى العناية المركزة وياللمفاجأة وجدت حارسا اخر سألته اريد الدخول لزيارة جدى واريته التذاكر " استنى فى الدور بتاعك " هكذا قال
انتظرت فى الطابور ولم يتحرك احد فذهبت اليه اسأله لماذا لم يدخل احد للزيارة فأجابنى الزيارة من 1.00 الى 2.00 فقلت كيف سيقوم كل هؤلاء بالزيارة فى ساعة واحدة فقال قوانين المشفى هكذا فوقفت رغما عن انفى الطابور ووجدى خالى قد اتى فتحدثت معه عن حالة جدى ولماذا تم نقله من المشفى الخاص فأخبنى انهم ادخلو جدى المستشفى الخاص لانهم توقعوا عناية افضل فقلت له وماذا حدث قال طلبوا مننا يومين مقدما قبل قبول المريض وبعد ان دفعنا وادخلنا الجد الى الغرفة لم نجد طبيبا معنا فسألنا اين الطبيب الذى سيعالجه فجاء الرد كالصاعقة
الدكتور اجازة النهاردة واين الباقى فجاءت الاسباب الدكتور فى عيادته والتانى عنده كشف بالخارج وفى النهاية نام جدى بالمستشفى يومين وجاء الطبيب وقال انه يحتاج غسيل كلى ولكن لايوجد امكانيات لذلك سيتم نقله الى المشفى الحكومى ( المجانى وقبل ان نأخذه قاله ادفع الحساب . كام 1000 ثمن سرير فى الليلة وكأننى فى فندق وليس مستشفى 500 جنيه ادوية 700 جنيه رعايه وتحاليل 200 سيارة اسعاف
ودفعنا فلم نملك ان نعارض ولم اكن اعلم ولازلت اعلم لماذا يطلقون عليها مشفى خاص
فأستطرد خالى الحديث وقد ذرفت دمعه من عينيه حالو اخفاءها ولكن... قال ركبنا مع الاسعاف واحضرناه الى هنا المستشفى الحكومى وعند دخولنا من الباب طلب الحارس رسوم دخول سيارة فدفعنا ودخلنا الى الاستقبال واخبرناه اننا معنا حالة مستعجلة وقد كان جدى غاب عن الوعى وكنا نحمله فقال انتظروا هنا فجلسنا لمدة 3 ساعات لا اعلم لماذا الانتظار هل ينتظر الجميع هكذا ؟ وماذا اذا كان المريض لا يستطيع تحمل كل هذا الوقت ؟
وبعد دخوله الى العناية المركزة اخبرنا الطبيب ان حالته سيئة وكتب لنا ادوية لشرائها وقال ادفعو 600 جنيه تحت الحساب
فدفعنا واشترينا الادوية وقال ان الجد لا يستطيع ان يغسل كلى فهو ضعيف ولايتحمل وانه له ساعات او ايام فى الدنيا فصدمنا ولكنها ارادة الله
مفيش زيارة النهاردة هكذا قاطعنا صوت عال ماذا حدث لماذا هاج الناس وتعالت الاصوات نظرت فى الساعة فوجدتها 1:15 اذا قد فات من وقت الزيارة 15 دقيقة ولم يدخل احد قال الحارس الدكتور مانع الزيارة
فوجدت احد الاشخاص يتقدم الى الحارس ويعطيه شيئا فى جيبه فنظر الينا الحارس وقال هذا الرجل فقط هو الذى يستطيع الدخول لان الدكتور عاوزه بالداخل
ذهبت اليه محاولا معه وقد علمت انه يريد المال واذا لم اعطيه فلن ازور جدى
وخرج الينا الدكتور طالبا ان يتكلم معنا فدخلنا مع الطبيب ونظرات الحارس ترافقنا ولسان حالها يقول ضاع 2 جنيه منى وهى التسعيرة للدخول
وذهلت عندما دخلت الى العناية المركزة وجدة 6 مرضى فى غرفة واحدة صحيح ان كل مريض له سرير ولكنى توقعت ان تكون العناية المركزة افضل من ذلك وقد علمت ان العناية المركزة انشئت بالجهود الذاتية لسكان المنطقة . وجدت الممرضة ولها ولدين صغيرين يلعبون حول المرضى . تقبلت الامر رغما عنى كالعادة
اخبرنا الدكتور ان الجد ينبغى له غسيل كلى ولماذا لم يقم بذلك البارحة لقد تأخر الوقت فأخبرته ان طبيبا اخر قال ان الجد لا يستطيع تحمل الغسيل قال انا ماليش دعوة بالدكتور التانى . تسألت هل هؤلاء اطباء ؟ وكيف تخرجوا ؟
طلب منا احضار قسطرة للغسيل فنزلت للشرائها 150 جنيه ثم طلب منى ان ادفع 150 ثمن الغسيل فنزلت ودفعت واحضرت الوصل ولم يتحرك ويقوم بعمله الا بعد ان احضرت له الوصل وقال لنا شيله ونزلوه تحت فى قسم غسيل الكلى . مين ؟ مين اللى هيشيله ومين اللى هيتشال؟
مفيش ممرضين وسرير مجهز للنقل
لا مفيش . ده الرد
نقلته انا وابن خالتى على كرسى ووضعناه فى الاسنسير للنزول لاسفل وفجأة لم يفتح باب الاسنسير ونحن بالداخل ماذا نفعل ان الجد يحتاج الى محاليل وتنفس صناعى دائما وانتظرنا حتى حضر احد العمال وفتح الباب من الخارج وكان الجد قد ذهب فى غيبوبة ووصلنا اخيرا الى قسم الكلى . ماله ده ؟ سؤال الطبيب
عاوز غسيل كلى
فين الوصل ؟
مع الدكتور
مش هينفع يدخل الا لما يجى الوصل ... رد الدكتور
ذهبنا نبحث عن الدكتور واخيرا وصلنا اليه يشرب الشاى فى احد الغرف مع زملائه واخذنا الوصل ونزلنا وقد مر على الجد 30 دقيقة بدن محاليل او عنايا ادخلوه الى غسيل الكلى وقالو سيخرج بعد ساعتين وانتظرنا بالخارج ......... وللحديث بقية
فى صباح يوم الاحد كنت فى الخارج مع ابن خالتى الذى يصغرنى بسنتين وتلقيت مكالمة على التليفون المحمول فوجدتها والدتى تخبرنى ان جدى قد نقل من المستشفى الخاص الى المستشفى الحكومى وكنت لم ازوره فى المستشفى الخاص فتزاحمت الافكار فى رأسى .هل نقلوه لارتفاع نفقات علاجه وماالفارق بين الخاص والحكومى هل هناك رعايه فى الخاص افضل من الحكومة ؟ ولماذا التفرقة بين الغنى والفقير ؟
واخبرت امى اننى ذاهب الى المستشفى حالا . اخذت العنوان وذهبت الى المستشفى وابن خالتى مرافقا لى
وصلنا الى المستشفى بعد عذاب المواصلات وانتظار الاتوبيس فوجد حارسا على الباب اخبرته انى اريد الدخول لرؤية جدى فى العناية المركزة .
تذكرة ياسيد" هكذا نطق الحارس قلت له اعطنى اثنتين رد قائلا 2:50 اعطيته النقود واعطانى التذاكر وسألته من فضلك كيف اذهب الى العناية المركزة " اجاب بأقتضاب " " أسأل بالداخل " وكأنه ليس موظفا بالمشفى
ووصلت اخيرا الى العناية المركزة وياللمفاجأة وجدت حارسا اخر سألته اريد الدخول لزيارة جدى واريته التذاكر " استنى فى الدور بتاعك " هكذا قال
انتظرت فى الطابور ولم يتحرك احد فذهبت اليه اسأله لماذا لم يدخل احد للزيارة فأجابنى الزيارة من 1.00 الى 2.00 فقلت كيف سيقوم كل هؤلاء بالزيارة فى ساعة واحدة فقال قوانين المشفى هكذا فوقفت رغما عن انفى الطابور ووجدى خالى قد اتى فتحدثت معه عن حالة جدى ولماذا تم نقله من المشفى الخاص فأخبنى انهم ادخلو جدى المستشفى الخاص لانهم توقعوا عناية افضل فقلت له وماذا حدث قال طلبوا مننا يومين مقدما قبل قبول المريض وبعد ان دفعنا وادخلنا الجد الى الغرفة لم نجد طبيبا معنا فسألنا اين الطبيب الذى سيعالجه فجاء الرد كالصاعقة
الدكتور اجازة النهاردة واين الباقى فجاءت الاسباب الدكتور فى عيادته والتانى عنده كشف بالخارج وفى النهاية نام جدى بالمستشفى يومين وجاء الطبيب وقال انه يحتاج غسيل كلى ولكن لايوجد امكانيات لذلك سيتم نقله الى المشفى الحكومى ( المجانى وقبل ان نأخذه قاله ادفع الحساب . كام 1000 ثمن سرير فى الليلة وكأننى فى فندق وليس مستشفى 500 جنيه ادوية 700 جنيه رعايه وتحاليل 200 سيارة اسعاف
ودفعنا فلم نملك ان نعارض ولم اكن اعلم ولازلت اعلم لماذا يطلقون عليها مشفى خاص
فأستطرد خالى الحديث وقد ذرفت دمعه من عينيه حالو اخفاءها ولكن... قال ركبنا مع الاسعاف واحضرناه الى هنا المستشفى الحكومى وعند دخولنا من الباب طلب الحارس رسوم دخول سيارة فدفعنا ودخلنا الى الاستقبال واخبرناه اننا معنا حالة مستعجلة وقد كان جدى غاب عن الوعى وكنا نحمله فقال انتظروا هنا فجلسنا لمدة 3 ساعات لا اعلم لماذا الانتظار هل ينتظر الجميع هكذا ؟ وماذا اذا كان المريض لا يستطيع تحمل كل هذا الوقت ؟
وبعد دخوله الى العناية المركزة اخبرنا الطبيب ان حالته سيئة وكتب لنا ادوية لشرائها وقال ادفعو 600 جنيه تحت الحساب
فدفعنا واشترينا الادوية وقال ان الجد لا يستطيع ان يغسل كلى فهو ضعيف ولايتحمل وانه له ساعات او ايام فى الدنيا فصدمنا ولكنها ارادة الله
مفيش زيارة النهاردة هكذا قاطعنا صوت عال ماذا حدث لماذا هاج الناس وتعالت الاصوات نظرت فى الساعة فوجدتها 1:15 اذا قد فات من وقت الزيارة 15 دقيقة ولم يدخل احد قال الحارس الدكتور مانع الزيارة
فوجدت احد الاشخاص يتقدم الى الحارس ويعطيه شيئا فى جيبه فنظر الينا الحارس وقال هذا الرجل فقط هو الذى يستطيع الدخول لان الدكتور عاوزه بالداخل
ذهبت اليه محاولا معه وقد علمت انه يريد المال واذا لم اعطيه فلن ازور جدى
وخرج الينا الدكتور طالبا ان يتكلم معنا فدخلنا مع الطبيب ونظرات الحارس ترافقنا ولسان حالها يقول ضاع 2 جنيه منى وهى التسعيرة للدخول
وذهلت عندما دخلت الى العناية المركزة وجدة 6 مرضى فى غرفة واحدة صحيح ان كل مريض له سرير ولكنى توقعت ان تكون العناية المركزة افضل من ذلك وقد علمت ان العناية المركزة انشئت بالجهود الذاتية لسكان المنطقة . وجدت الممرضة ولها ولدين صغيرين يلعبون حول المرضى . تقبلت الامر رغما عنى كالعادة
اخبرنا الدكتور ان الجد ينبغى له غسيل كلى ولماذا لم يقم بذلك البارحة لقد تأخر الوقت فأخبرته ان طبيبا اخر قال ان الجد لا يستطيع تحمل الغسيل قال انا ماليش دعوة بالدكتور التانى . تسألت هل هؤلاء اطباء ؟ وكيف تخرجوا ؟
طلب منا احضار قسطرة للغسيل فنزلت للشرائها 150 جنيه ثم طلب منى ان ادفع 150 ثمن الغسيل فنزلت ودفعت واحضرت الوصل ولم يتحرك ويقوم بعمله الا بعد ان احضرت له الوصل وقال لنا شيله ونزلوه تحت فى قسم غسيل الكلى . مين ؟ مين اللى هيشيله ومين اللى هيتشال؟
مفيش ممرضين وسرير مجهز للنقل
لا مفيش . ده الرد
نقلته انا وابن خالتى على كرسى ووضعناه فى الاسنسير للنزول لاسفل وفجأة لم يفتح باب الاسنسير ونحن بالداخل ماذا نفعل ان الجد يحتاج الى محاليل وتنفس صناعى دائما وانتظرنا حتى حضر احد العمال وفتح الباب من الخارج وكان الجد قد ذهب فى غيبوبة ووصلنا اخيرا الى قسم الكلى . ماله ده ؟ سؤال الطبيب
عاوز غسيل كلى
فين الوصل ؟
مع الدكتور
مش هينفع يدخل الا لما يجى الوصل ... رد الدكتور
ذهبنا نبحث عن الدكتور واخيرا وصلنا اليه يشرب الشاى فى احد الغرف مع زملائه واخذنا الوصل ونزلنا وقد مر على الجد 30 دقيقة بدن محاليل او عنايا ادخلوه الى غسيل الكلى وقالو سيخرج بعد ساعتين وانتظرنا بالخارج ......... وللحديث بقية
استفيد من وقتك على الانترنت واربح 15000دولار فى الشهر والله العظيم مجرب وكسبت
اولا : بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم السلام عليكم يا خوانى الكرام انى احبكم فى الله ولهذا السبب اتيت لكم بعد البحث الطويل عن شركات التى تجعلك تربح وتكسب المال من النت فعلا والله العطيم ان مجرب وكسبت الآن يمكنكم تصفح الإنترنت كما تشاءون بدون دفع فاتورة الحساب ولكم مرتب شهري.وهناك مميزات كثيره جدا وذلك فقط بالاشتراك المجانى فى هذه الشركات التى ساعرضها لكم من فضلكم يجب قراءة هذه السطور بعناية وتمهلوا حتى يمكنكم انتهاز هذه الفرصة العظيمة اكرر أنا هذا الموقع الاشتراك فيه مجاني الآن يمكنك أنت أيضا أن تشترك في هذا الموقع الرائع الذي يعطيك الفرصه لكى تستفيد من وقتك الذي تقضيه على الإنترنت و تحصل على دخل شهري يصل إلى15000دولارو سوف اشرح لك اخى خطوه بخطوه كيفيه الربح من هذه الشركاتثانيا : قبل ما ابداء بالشرح اقسم بالله العلى العظيم اننى اخذت فلوسى من الشركهوفكر لو انت مشترك فى كل المواقع النى اعرهالك وكل منهما يعود عليك بعائد شهرى انت فى الاخر هتجمع 15000دولار بالظبط اولا:فى كل هذه الشركات تعطيك لينك فقم بنشره حتى يشترك الافراد تحت للينك بتاعك وتربح انت من اشتراكهم وده بيكون لوحده ربح كبير وتزيد ربحك بدرجه كبيره جدا تستطيع ان تدعو الافراد بهذه الطريقه وليس بمجهود كبير سوف اقول لك كيف تقوم بدعوتهم فى نهايه الموضوع ثالثا : لقد ركزت على عدة شركات صادقة لانهم يتميزون بان الحد الادنى لسحب فلوسك منهم يكون 1سنت وهو 3 شركات واقصى شركه 5 سنت وهى شركه واحده واخرى 10 دولار يعنى باختصار بمجرد ما تشترك وتضغط على 5 اعلانات كل اعلان ياخذ 10 ثوانى يعنى 50 ثانيه تصل الى الحد الادنى وتسحب فلوسكثالثا:الموضوع سهل وبسيط وانا فقط اريد منك ان تتبع ما اقوله لك وتنفذه بالحرف الواحد وسوف تاخذ 15000لاف دولاربكل سهوله مثلىرابعا :لابد لسحب مالك ان يكون لديك حساب فى احد البنوك واطمن يوجد هناك بنك مجانى التسجيل فيه مجانا وتعترف به جميع الشركات العالميه على مستوى العالم البنك الذهبي E-Goldيعتبر البنك الاول على مستوى العالم ومشترك به ملايين المستثمرين من مختلف دول العالم ، بنك يسمح لك عن طريق نظام الدفع به ان تستخدم الذهب على انه عملة فمن خلاله يمكنك ان تحول اي عملة الى ذهب ويمكنك ايضاً ان تحول الذهب الى اي عملة من والى اي مكان فيوتسطيع ان تسحب فلوسك منه فى اى وقت شئت وتحولها الى بلدك و اى مكان فى العالم ويتميز الحساب الذهبي بأنه لا يتأثر بالتغيرات في سوق العملات الورقية كالدولار الامريكي لأنه مضمون 100% وهذا البنك بعث لى 15000الاف دولار الى بيتىالان قبل ابداء لك بالشرح فى هذه الشركات اشرح لك كيف يتم فتح حساب مجانى فى البنك العالمى المعروف باسم الحساب الذهبىاضغط على الرابطwww.e-gold.comالخطوة الاولى سوف تجد الشكل الموضح بأعلى create An Account المظلل عليها كما هو موضح بالرسم سوف تنتقل إلى صفحة أخرى بها الاتفاقية التي سوف تكون بينك وبين مؤسسة الذهب وعند الانتهاء من قراءتها جيدا قم بالضغط بزر الماوس على I AGREE سوف تنتقل إلى صفحة إدخال بيانات حسابك الذهبي. لخطوة الثانية المكان المخصص Account Name تقوم بكتابة الاسم الذي تختاره أنت والذي سوف يستخدم كاسم لحسابك الذهبي. مثال:aliahmedفي المكان المخصص User Name تقوم بكتابة اسمك , في المكان المخصص De×××iption تقوم بكتابة المهنة التي تعمل بها. مثال:aliahmedمثال:Accounting ي المكان المخصص Name تقوم بكتابة اسمك في المكان المخصص Address تقوم بكتابة عنوانك ، في المكانلمخصص City تقوم بكتابة اسم المدينة في المكان المخصص State/Provincتقوم بكتابة اسم الدولة في المكان المخصصCountry/ZIP/PostaمCodeتقوم بكتابة كود بريدك او خمس اصفار اذا لم تكن تعرفه ولكن من الضرورى ان تسئال ساعى البريد بتاع مدينتك عن الرمز الكودى لها وبد ماتعمل حساب تدخل الى الحساب و تعدل بياناتك وتكتب الرقم الصحيح في المكان المخصص E-mailتقوم بكتابة عنوانك البريدي حيث يجب أن يكون ، عنوان بريدي صحيح لان هذا العنوان سوف تتلقى عليه رسالة تحتوى على بيانات هامة مثل رقم حساب الذهب الخاص بك ، في المكان المخصص Phone تقوم بكتابة رقم تليفونك ، في المكان المخصص Fax تقوم بكتابة رقم الفاكس الخاص بك ، في المكان المخصص Alternate Passphrase تقوم بكتابة كلمة السر البديلة. الخطوة الخامسة في المكان المخصص New e-gold Account Passphrase تقوم بكتابة كلمة السر التي تريدها والتي يجب أن تتضمن حروف وأرقام ويجب أن تزيد عن ستة من الحروف والأرقام ويجب عليك أن تتذكرها جيدا لأنك سوف تستخدمها لفتح حسابك الذهبي. في المكان المخصص New e-gold Account Passphrase again تقوم بإعادة كتابة كلمة السر مرة أخرى للتأكيد. لخطوة السادسة في هذى الخطوة تقوم بكتابة الرقم الذي سوف يظهر لك في المستطيل وهذا من الدواعي الأمنية. مثال:740307 الخطوة الاخيرة بعد أن تتأكد من أن البيانات التي قمت بإدخالها صحيحة قم بالضغط على مفتاحللدخو الى حسابك acsess your goldثم اكتب رقم الحسلب والباس وردواحيانا يظهر pin codeوهى رساله الى البريد به رقم تكتبهوتدخل حسابك فى البنك العالمى الحساب الذهبىOpen وبذلك تكون قد انتهيت من عملية فتح الحساب بنجاح وبعد ذلك تذهب لتتفحص بريدك الخاص تجد رساله بها الرقم بتاع حسابكyahoo"hotmail لتجد فيه رسالة هامة بها رقم حساب الذهب الجديد الخاص بكملحوظه هامه :طرق الربح الأخرى هى:حيث ستجد الرموز التاليه أثناء العمل فى هذه المواقعPTPوتعنى paid to promote أى اربح من خلال دعوة أصدقاء جددPTRوتعنى paid toread أى اربح من خلال قراءة الاعلاناتPTCوتعنى paid toclick أى اربح من خلال الضغط على الاعلاناتPTSوتعنى paid to sign up أى اربح من خلال الاشتراك فى المواقع.هذه هى معظم أو كل الطرق الربحيه الموجوده بهذه المواقع حيث قد تجد هذه الطرق مكتوبه بالاختصارات أو جمل كامله كالاختصارات والجمل المكتوبه سابقاً.حيث تستطيع سحب أرباحك إلى الحساب الذهبى request paymentوسوف تجدها فى صفحةوالأن أنت مستعد للاشتراك فى المواقع الربحيه المجانيه لنبدأ الشركه الاولى : لا يوجد لها حد ادنى اى الحد الأدنى للسحب من هذا الموقع هو سنت واحد اى بعد اربع ضغطات تقدر تسحب فلوسك فوراومن مميزات الشركه ان عمليه السحب بسرعه فائقهوممن مميزاتها تضغط على profile ثم تحدد الحد اللادنى ااسحب امواك وانا اقول لك اجعله 3 سنت وعندما تصل الى الحد الادنى تقوم الشركه مباشره واوتوماتيكيابدفع المبلغ فى حسابكوالله الذى لا اله الا هو اننى اشتركت بها ثم جعلت الحد اللانى 3 سنت ثم عملت 3 سنت ثم دخلت الى حسابى الذهبى فى البنك فوجدت المبلغ قد حول الى رصيدى بالبنك اجعل الحد الادنى لك 3 سنت لانه عند 3 سنت يقوم بتحويل المبلغ بسرعه فائفه الى رصيدك بالبنك وممكن تخليه 1 سنت وحسب راحتك انت انا عن نفسى اجعله 3 سنت الريفيل لينك 25 %من ارباح كل مشترك يدخل عن طريقك وهذه حقا هى الميزه الرائعهاى لوعندك 100 مشترك وكل واحد عمل باليوم 25 سنت يعنى 2500سنت لك انت بدون ما تفعل شى 625سنت يوميا بدون ما تعمل اى شىوعلى فكره 100مشترك سهل جدا انك تحصل عليهم اقول لك الطريقه فى نهايه موضوعى كمل القراءه بتمهل وستعرف كل شى سهل بس انت ركز معايا طرق الربح بالشركهvist and earnستجدها فى منتصف الصفحه اضغط عليها ستجد اعلانات كثيره تضغط على اول اعلان ثم تجد صفحه اخرى تجد العداد بيعد لمده 10 ثوانى ثم يقول لك اضغط على وقم معين وليكن 8 تجد تحت العداد 4 ارقام اختار الرقم المطلوبوليكن 8 ثم اغلق الصفحه سيوف يقوم اوتوماتيكيا بتحويا المبلغ الى رصيدك فى الشركهوبعد اربع اعلانات تكمل الواحد سنت تجد حول الى حسابك بالبنكبها خاصيه النقاط اضغط غلى covert points سوف يتم تحويله الى فلوسrefaul link: :اى عن طريق دعوه الافراد والاصدقاء للتسجيل عن طريقكطريقه التسجيلhttp://www.ad-leader.com/index.php?ref=aomsyzاضغطgoin ثم اكتب بياناتكالشركه الثانيهالحد الأدنى للسحب من هذا الموقع هو سنت واحدالريفيل لينك يصل اللى 5 مستويات وتربح 10%من ارباح كل مشترك اى لوعندك 100 مشترك وكل واحد عمل باليوم 25 سنت يعنى 2500سنت لك انت بدون ما تفعل شى 250سنت يوميا بدون ما تعمل اى شى طريقه التسجيلhttp://www.donkeymails.com/pages/index.php?refid=aomsyzثم sign upثم اكتب الايميل ثم ذهب الى الياهو او الهوتميل ستجد رساله اضط confirmثم اكتب بيناتك الصحيحه عادى ورقم الايجولد وعند zip code اكتب الرمز البريى او 00000 واضعطcontiunثم اعمل lognon وادخل الى حسابك ثم الى فحه المكسب member الشركه الثالثهhttp://www.no-minimum.com/pages/index.php?refid=aomsyz الحد الأدنى للسحب من هذا الموقع هو سنت واحد يعنى بعد اربع ضغطات ممكن تسحب فلوسكالريفيل لينك يصل اللى 6مستويات وتربح 10%من ارباح كل مشترك اى لوعندك 100 مشترك وكل واحد عمل باليوم 25 سنت يعنى 2500سنت لك انت بدون ما تفعل شى 250سنت يوميا بدون ما تعمل اى شىطريقه التسجيلنفس الطريقه بالضبط للشركه السابقهالشركه الاخيرهالحد الأدنى للسحب من هذا الموقع هو 5 سنتاتهذا من افضل المواقع التى عرفتها لانك تستطيع فتح جميع الاعلانات فى وقت واحديعنى ممكن تفتح 10 اعلانات هياخذو كلهم دقيقه ونصف وتاخذ2.5سنت اى بعد 3 دقائق تعمل الحد لادنى وتسحب فلوسك ممكن تحول نقاطك الى البرونزيه اى تاخذ على الاعلانالواحد 2 سنت وتاخذ 25%من ارباح الريفيل لينك يعنى لو عندك 100 وكل واحد عما 25 سنت فى اليوم يعنى 2500 سنت ليك انت 625سنت يوميا بدون ما تعمل اى شى يعنى كل يوم تدخل الموقع وتحولها الى حسابك الذهبى بدون ما تشتغل ولا تعمل الى حاجهhttp://www.5centminimum.com/paidto/home.php?ref=aomsyzregrstreثم اكتب بياناتك وضع علامه صح فى الخانه الاخيره
وهذا موقع اخر ولكن يجب ان تشترك فى البنك الالكترونى اولا وتفتح لك حساب ليتم تحويل النقود لك وهو : www. AlertPay.com
وبعد ان تملاء بياناتك يمكنك الان الاشتراك فى هذه الشركة وهى تعطيك 14 اعلان يوميا ولها عدة طرق للكسب انشاء الله
http://bux.to/?r=AOMSYZملحوضات هامه :اخى الكريم يجب عليك عند الدخول الى اى موقع ان تبداء ببسم الله وذلك اتبع سنه حبيبك المصطفى واقول لك اخى انت الان قد سجلت فى المواقع وفى الحساب الذهبى وعندما تدخل الى حسابك الذهبى سوف تجد رصيدك صفر اى لا تمتلك اى مالفخطوه بخطوه سوف تضع فى حسابك الذهبى السنتات وتجمع الفلوس كل يوم بيوم حتى يصل رصيدك الى دولار ثم 10 دولار ثم 100 ثم 1000 دولار فاكثر اخى اعلم انك ممكن ان تجمع كل يوم من الاربع شركات625+250+250+625=1550سنت يوميا يعنى 15 دولار ونصف فى اليوميعنى 465 دولار شهريا ولكنى عندى طريقه تجعلك تكسب بالاف الدولارات يوميا وهى سهله ولكن تتطلب منك مجهود طبعا تسالنى ما هى اقول لكالريفيل لينك refeul link يصل اللى 5 او6مستويات فى كل شركه هى تعطيك 25او10 %من ارباح كل مشترك يدخل عن طريقكاى لو انك دعوت 100 فرد وسجلو عن طريقك وكل واحد عمل فى اليوم من الاربع شركات 1 دولاريعنى كلهم 100 دولار يعنى لك فى اليوم الربع اى 25 دولار بدون ما تعمل شى يعنى شهريا 450 دولار ولو كل واحدفى 100 مشترك دخل ولو حتى 10 افراد بس طبعا كله تحت حسابك يعنى ممكن يكون لك 1000 مشترك يعنى فى اليوم1000 دولاريعنى لك الربع يكون 250 دولار يوميايعنى شهريا 15000دولارواكنى اسمعك تقول ان 100 مشرك صعب جدا اقول لك لا لا يا اخى بل سهل جداوالطريقه هى الدخول على جوجل وتكتب المنتديات او دلليل المنتديات وتبحث وتشترك فى على المنتدى وبعد كده تدخل فى اى قسم وتكب موضوعك زى الموضوع ده وبالريفيل لينك بتاعك وتنشره فى المنتدى كل يوم يدخل فى المنتدى 10000الاف مشترك ويقراءو الموضوع ويشتركوا عن طريقكاكيد سوف تحصل على الاقل 100 مشترك او اكثرولو اشتركت فى منتديات اكثر يدخلك مشتركين اكثر الطريقه سهله بس عاوزه مجهود فى الاول بعد كده هتستريح خالص واخى الكريم انا انصحك بلاشتراك بالابع شركات لانك اذا اشتركت بواحده او اثنين اوثلاثه حتما ستقل ارباحكاخى الان اشترك وابذل مجهودك وابنى نفسك بنفسك
وهذا موقعى وبه معلومات وطرق اخرى للربح من الانترنت تفضل بزيارته
www.egyeasy.jeeran.com / www.egy-trade.co.ccوان صادفك اى استفسارات فابعتلى على ايميلى وهرد عليها انشاء اللهshort_life2000@yahoo.comوالسلام عليكم ورحمه الله وبركاته
وهذا موقع اخر ولكن يجب ان تشترك فى البنك الالكترونى اولا وتفتح لك حساب ليتم تحويل النقود لك وهو : www. AlertPay.com
وبعد ان تملاء بياناتك يمكنك الان الاشتراك فى هذه الشركة وهى تعطيك 14 اعلان يوميا ولها عدة طرق للكسب انشاء الله
http://bux.to/?r=AOMSYZملحوضات هامه :اخى الكريم يجب عليك عند الدخول الى اى موقع ان تبداء ببسم الله وذلك اتبع سنه حبيبك المصطفى واقول لك اخى انت الان قد سجلت فى المواقع وفى الحساب الذهبى وعندما تدخل الى حسابك الذهبى سوف تجد رصيدك صفر اى لا تمتلك اى مالفخطوه بخطوه سوف تضع فى حسابك الذهبى السنتات وتجمع الفلوس كل يوم بيوم حتى يصل رصيدك الى دولار ثم 10 دولار ثم 100 ثم 1000 دولار فاكثر اخى اعلم انك ممكن ان تجمع كل يوم من الاربع شركات625+250+250+625=1550سنت يوميا يعنى 15 دولار ونصف فى اليوميعنى 465 دولار شهريا ولكنى عندى طريقه تجعلك تكسب بالاف الدولارات يوميا وهى سهله ولكن تتطلب منك مجهود طبعا تسالنى ما هى اقول لكالريفيل لينك refeul link يصل اللى 5 او6مستويات فى كل شركه هى تعطيك 25او10 %من ارباح كل مشترك يدخل عن طريقكاى لو انك دعوت 100 فرد وسجلو عن طريقك وكل واحد عمل فى اليوم من الاربع شركات 1 دولاريعنى كلهم 100 دولار يعنى لك فى اليوم الربع اى 25 دولار بدون ما تعمل شى يعنى شهريا 450 دولار ولو كل واحدفى 100 مشترك دخل ولو حتى 10 افراد بس طبعا كله تحت حسابك يعنى ممكن يكون لك 1000 مشترك يعنى فى اليوم1000 دولاريعنى لك الربع يكون 250 دولار يوميايعنى شهريا 15000دولارواكنى اسمعك تقول ان 100 مشرك صعب جدا اقول لك لا لا يا اخى بل سهل جداوالطريقه هى الدخول على جوجل وتكتب المنتديات او دلليل المنتديات وتبحث وتشترك فى على المنتدى وبعد كده تدخل فى اى قسم وتكب موضوعك زى الموضوع ده وبالريفيل لينك بتاعك وتنشره فى المنتدى كل يوم يدخل فى المنتدى 10000الاف مشترك ويقراءو الموضوع ويشتركوا عن طريقكاكيد سوف تحصل على الاقل 100 مشترك او اكثرولو اشتركت فى منتديات اكثر يدخلك مشتركين اكثر الطريقه سهله بس عاوزه مجهود فى الاول بعد كده هتستريح خالص واخى الكريم انا انصحك بلاشتراك بالابع شركات لانك اذا اشتركت بواحده او اثنين اوثلاثه حتما ستقل ارباحكاخى الان اشترك وابذل مجهودك وابنى نفسك بنفسك
وهذا موقعى وبه معلومات وطرق اخرى للربح من الانترنت تفضل بزيارته
www.egyeasy.jeeran.com / www.egy-trade.co.ccوان صادفك اى استفسارات فابعتلى على ايميلى وهرد عليها انشاء اللهshort_life2000@yahoo.comوالسلام عليكم ورحمه الله وبركاته
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